Title:  Methods of using cyanovirins topically to inhibit viral infection

United States Patent:  6,420,336

Inventors:  Boyd; Michael R. (Ijamaville, MD)

Assignee:  The United States of America as represented by the Department of Health and (Washington, DC)

Appl. No.:  417797

Filed:  October 27, 1999

The present invention provides antiviral proteins, peptides and conjugates, as well as methods of obtaining these agents. The antiviral proteins, peptides and conjugates of the present invention can be used alone or in combination with other antiviral agents in compositions, such as pharmaceutical compositions, to inhibit the infectivity, replication and cytopathic effects of a virus, such as a retrovirus, in particular a human immunodeficiency virus, specifically HIV-1 or HIV-2, in the treatment or prevention of viral infection.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION AND PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS

Infection of CD4⁺ cells by HIV-1 and related primate immunodeficiency viruses begins with interaction of the respective viral envelope glycoproteins (generically termed "gp120") with the cell-surface receptor CD4, followed by fusion and entry (Sattentau, AIDS 2, 101-105, 1988; and Koenig et al., PNAS USA 86, 2443-2447, 1989). Productively infected, virus-producing cells express gp120 at the cell surface; interaction of gp120 of infected cells with CD4 on uninfected cells results in formation of dysfunctional multicellular syncytia and further spread of viral infection (Freed et al., Bull. Inst. Pasteur 88, 73, 1990). Thus, the gp120/CD4 interaction is a particularly attractive target for interruption of HIV infection and cytopathogenesis, either by prevention of initial virus-to-cell binding or by blockage of cell-to-cell fusion (Capon et al., Ann. Rev. Immunol. 9, 649-678, 1991). Virus-free or "soluble" gp120 shed from virus or from infected cells in vivro is also an important therapeutic target, since it may otherwise contribute to noninfectious immunopathogenic processes throughout the body, including the central nervous system (Capon et al., 1991, supra; and Lipton, Nature 367, 113-114, 1994). Much vaccine research has focused upon gp120; however, progress has been hampered by hypervariability of the gp120-neutralizing determinants, and consequent extreme strain-dependence of viral sensitivity to gp120-directed antibodies (Berzofsky, J. Acg. Immun. Def. Synd. 4, 451-459, 1991). Relatively little drug discovery and development research has focused specifically upon gp120. A notable exception is the considerable effort that has been devoted to truncated, recombinant "CD4" proteins ("soluble CD4" or "sCD4"), which bind gp120 and inhibit HIV infectivity in vitro (Capon et al., 1991, supra; Schooley et al., Ann. Int. Med. 112, 247-253, 1990; and Husson et al., J. Pediatr. 121, 627-633, 1992). However, clinical isolates, in contrast to laboratory strains of HIV, have proven highly resistant to neutralization by sCD4 (Orloff et al., AIDS Res. Hum. Retrovir. 11, 335-342, 1995; and Moore et al., J. Virol. 66, 235-243, 1992). Initial clinical trials of sCD4 (Schooley et al., 1990, supra; and Husson et al., 1992, supra), and of sCD4-coupled immunoglobulins (Langner et al., Arch. Virol. 130, 157-170, 1993), and likewise of sCD4-coupled toxins designed to bind and destroy virus-expressing cells (Davey et al., J. Infect. Dis. 170, 1180-1188, 1994; and Ramachandran et al., J. Infect. Dis. 170, 1009-1113, 1994), have been disappointing. Newer gene-therapy approaches to generating sCD4 directly in vivo (Morgan et al., AIDS Res. Hum. Retrovir. 10, 1507-1515, 1994) will likely suffer similar frustrations.

In view of the above, the principal overall objective of the present invention is to provide anti-viral proteins, peptides and derivatives thereof, and broad medical uses thereof, including prophylactic and/or therapeutic applications against viruses, such as retroviruses, in particular a human immunodeficiency virus, specifically HIV-1 or HIV-2.

An initial observation, which led to the present invention, was antiviral activity in certain extracts from cultured cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) tested in an anti-HIV screen. The screen is one that was conceived in 1986 (by M. R. Boyd of the National Institutes of Health) and has been developed and operated at the U.S. National Cancer Institute (NCI) since 1988 (see Boyd, in AIDS, Etiology Diagnosis. Treatment and Prevention, DeVita et al., eds., Philadelphia: Lippincott, 1988, pp. 305-317).

Cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) were specifically chosen for anti-HIV screening because they had been known to produce a wide variety of structurally unique and biologically active non-nitrogenous and amino acid-derived natural products (Faulkner, Nat. Prod. Reo. 11, 355-394, 1994; and Glombitza et al., in Algal and Cyanobacterial Biotechnology, Cresswell, R. C., et al. eds., 1989, pp. 211-218). These photosynthetic procaryotic organisms are significant producers of cyclic and linear peptides (molecular weight generally <3 kDa), which often exhibit hepatotoxic or antimicrobial properties (Okino et al., Tetrahedron Lett. 34, 501-504, 1993; Krishnamurthy et al., PNAS USA 86, 770-774, 1989; Sivonen et al., Chem. Res. Toxicol. 5, 464-469, 1992; Carter et al., J. Org. Chem. 49, 236-241, 1984; and Frankmolle et al., J. Antibiot. 45, 1451-1457, 1992). Sequencing studies of higher molecular weight cyanobacterial peptides and proteins have generally focused on those associated with primary metabolic processes or ones that can serve as phylogenetic markers (Suter et al., FEBS Lett. 217, 279-282, 1987; Rumbeli et al., FEBS Lett. 221, 1-2, 1987; Swanson et al., J. Biol. Chem. 267, 16146-16154, 1992; Michalowski et al., Nucleic Acids Res. 18, 2186, 1990; Sherman et al., in The Cyanobacteria, Fay et al., eds., Elsevier: New York, 1987, pp. 1-33; and Rogers, in The Cyanobacteria, Fay et al., eds., Elsevier: New York, 1987, pp. 35-67). In general, proteins with antiviral properties have not been associated with cyanobacterial sources.

The cyanobacterial extract leading to the present invention was among many thousands of different extracts initially selected randomly and tested blindly in the anti-HIV screen described above. A number of these extracts had been determined preliminarily to show anti-HIV activity in the NCI screen (Patterson et al., J. Phycol. 29, 125-130, 1993). From this group, an aqueous extract from Nostoc ellipsosporum, which had been prepared as described (Patterson, 1993, supra) and which showed an unusually high anti-HIV potency and in vitro "therapeutic index" in the NCI primary screen, was selected for detailed investigation. A specific bioassay-guided strategy was used to isolate and purify a homogenous protein highly activeagainst HIV.

In the bioassay-guided strategy, initial selection of the extract for fractionation, as well as the decisions concerning the overall chemical isolation method to be applied, and the nature of the individual steps therein, were determined by interpretation of biological testing data. The anti-HIV screening assay (e.g., see Boyd, 1988, supra; Weislow et al., J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 81, 577-586, 1989), which was used to guide the isolation and purification process, measures the degree of protection of human T-lymphoblastoid cells from the cytopathic effects of HIV. Fractions of the extract of interest are prepared using a variety of chemical means and are tested blindly in the primary screen. Active fractions are separated further, and the resulting subfractions are likewise tested blindly in the screen. This process is repeated as many times as necessary in order to obtain the active compound(s), i.e., antiviral fraction(s) representing pure compound(s), which then can be subjected to detailed chemical analysis and structural elucidation.

Using this strategy, aqueous extracts of Nostoc ellipsosporum were shown to contain an antiviral protein. Accordingly, the present invention provides an isolated and purified antiviral protein, named cyanovirin-N, from Nostoc ellipsosporum. Herein the term "cyanovirin" is used generically to refer to a native cyanovirin or any related, functionally equivalent protein, peptide or derivative thereof. By definition, in this context, a related, functionally equivalent protein, peptide or derivative thereof a) contains a sequence of at least nine amino acids directly homologous with any sub-sequence of nine contiguous amino acids contained within a native cyanovirin, and, b) is capable of specifically binding to virus, more specifically a primate immunodeficiency virus, more specifically HIV-1, HIV-2 or SIV, or to an infected host cell expressing one or more viral antigen(s), more specifically an envelope glycoprotein, such as gp120, of the respective virus. Herein, the term "protein" refers to a sequence comprising 100 or more amino acids, whereas "peptide" refers to a sequence comprising less than 100 amino acids. Preferably, the protein, peptide or derivative thereof comprises an amino acid sequence that is substantially homologous to that of an antiviral protein from Nostoc ellipsosporum. By "substantially homologous" is meant sufficient homology to render the protein, peptide or derivative thereof antiviral, with antiviral activity characteristic of an antiviral protein isolated from Nostoc ellipsosporum. At least about 50% homology, preferably at least about 75% homology, and most preferably at least about 90% homology should exist. A cyanovirin conjugate comprises a cyanovirin coupled to one or more selected effector molecule(s), such as a toxin or immunological reagent. "Immunological reagent" will be used to refer to an antibody, an immunoglobulin, and an immunological recognition element. An immunological recognition element is an element, such as a peptide, e.g., the FLAG sequence of the recombinant cyanovirin-FLAG fusion protein, which facilitates, through immunological recognition, isolation and/or purification and/or analysis of the protein or peptide to which it is attached. A cyanovirin fusion protein is a type of cyanovirin conjugate, wherein a cyanovirin is coupled to one or more other protein(s) having any desired properties or effector functions, such as cytotoxic or immunological properties, or other desired properties, such as to facilitate isolation purification or analysis of the fusion protein.

Accordingly, the present invention provides an isolated and purified protein encoded by a nucleic acid molecule comprising a sequence of SEQ ID NO:1, a nucleic acid molecule comprising a sequence of SEQ ID NO:3, a nucleic acid molecule encoding an amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:2, or a nucleic acid molecule encoding an amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:4. Preferably, the aforementioned nucleic acid molecules encode at least nine contiguous amino acids of the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:2.

The present invention also provides a method of obtaining a cyanovirin from Nostoc ellipsosporum. Such a method comprises (a) identifying an extract of Nostoc ellipsosporum containing antiviral activity, (b) optionally removing high molecular weight biopolymers from the extract, (c) antiviral bioassay-guided fractionating the extract to obtain a crude extract of cyanovirin, and (d) purifying the crude extract by reverse-phase HPLC to obtain cyanovirin. More specifically, the method involves the use of ethanol to remove high molecular weight biopolymers from the extract and the use of an anti-HIV bioassay to guide fractionation of the extract.

Cyanovirin-N, which was isolated and purified using the aforementioned method, was subjected to conventional procedures typically used to determine the amino acid sequence of a given pure protein. Thus, the cyanovirin was initially sequenced by N-terminal-Edman degradation of intact protein and numerous overlapping peptide fragments generated by endoproteinase digestion. Amino acid analysis was in agreement with the deduced sequence. ESI mass spectrometry of reduced, HPLC-purified cyanovirin-N showed a molecular ion consistent with the calculated value. These studies indicated that cyanovirin-N from Nostoc ellipsosporum was comprised of a unique sequence of 101 amino acids having little or no significant homology to previously described proteins or transcription products of known nucleotide sequences. No more than eight contiguous amino acids from cyanovirin were found in any amino acid sequences from known proteins, nor were there any known proteins from any source containing greater than 13% sequence homology with cyanovirin-N. Given the chemically deduced amino acid sequence of cyanovirin-N, a corresponding recombinant cyanovirin-N (r-cyanovirin-N) was created and used to definitively establish that the deduced amino acid sequence was, indeed, active against virus, such as HIV (Boyd et al., 1995, supra).

Accordingly, the present invention provides isolated and purified nucleic acid molecules and synthetic nucleic acid molecules, which comprise a coding sequence for a cyanovirin, such as an isolated and purified nucleic acid molecule comprising a sequence of SEQ ID NO:1, an isolated and purified nucleic acid molecule comprising a sequence of SEQ ID NO:3, an isolated and purified nucleic acid molecule encoding an amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:2, an isolated and purified nucleic acid molecule encoding an amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:4, and a nucleic acid molecule that is substantially homologous to is any one or more of the aforementioned nucleic acid molecules. By "substantially homologous" is meant sufficient homology to render the protein, peptide or derivative thereof antiviral, with antiviral activity characteristic of an antiviral protein isolated from Nostoc ellipsosporum. At least about 50% homology, preferably at least about 75% homology, and most preferably at least about 90% homology should exist. More specifically, the present invention provides one of the aforementioned nucleic acid molecules, which comprises a nucleic acid sequence encoding at least nine contiguous amino acids of the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:2.

Given the present disclosure, it will be apparent to one skilled in the art that a partial cyanovirin-N gene codon sequence will likely suffice to code for a fully functional, i.e., antiviral, such as anti-HIV, cyanovirin. A minimum essential DNA coding sequence(s) for a functional cyanovirin can readily be determined by one skilled in the art, for example, by synthesis and evaluation of sub-sequences comprising the native cyanovirin,and by site-directed mutagenesis studies of the cyanovirin-N DNA coding sequence.

Using an appropriate DNA coding sequence, a recombinant cyanovirin can be made by genetic engineering techniques (for general background see, e.g., Nicholl, in An Introduction to Genetic Engineering, Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, 1994, pp. 1-5 & 127-130; Steinberg et al., in Recombinant DNA Technology Concepts and Biomedical Applications, Prentice Hall: Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 1993, pp. 81-124 & 150-162; Sofer in Introduction to Genetic Engineering, Butterworth-Heinemann, Stoneham, Mass., 1991, pp. 1-21 & 103-126; Old et al., in Principles of Gene Manipulation, Blackwell Scientific Publishers: London, 1992, pp. 1-13 & 108-221; and Emtage, in Delivery Systems for Peptide Drugs, Davis et al., eds., Plenum Press: New York, 1986, pp. 23-33). For example, a Nostoc ellipsosporum gene or cDNA encoding a cyanovirin can be identified and subcloned. The gene or cDNA can then be incorporated into an appropriate expression vector and delivered into an appropriate protein-synthesizing organism (e.g., E. coli, S. cerevisiae, P. pastoris, or other bacterial, yeast, insect or mammalian cell), where the gene, under the control of an endogenous or exogenous promoter, can be appropriately transcribed and translated. Such expression vectors (including, but not limited to, phage, cosmid, viral, and plasmid vectors) are known to those skilled in the art, as are reagents and techniques appropriate for gene transfer (e.g., transfection, electroporation, transduction, micro-injection, transformation, etc.). Subsequently, the recombinantly produced protein can be isolated and purified using standard techniques known in the art (e.g., chromatography, centrifugation, differential solubility, isoelectric focusing, etc.), and assayed for antiviral activity.

Alternatively, a native cyanovirin can be obtained from Nostoc ellipsosporum by non-recombinant methods, and sequenced by conventional techniques. The sequence can then be used to synthesize the corresponding DNA, which can be subcloned into an appropriate expression vector and delivered into a protein-producing cell for en mass recombinant production of the desired protein.

In this regard, the present invention also provides a vector comprising a DNA sequence, e.g., a Nostoc ellipsosporum gene sequence for cyanovirin, a cDNA encoding a cyanovirin, or a synthetic DNA sequence encoding cyanovirin, a host cell comprising the vector, and a method of using such a host cell to produce a cyanovirin.

The DNA, whether isolated and purified or synthetic, or cDNA encoding a cyanovirin can encode for either the entire cyanovirin or a portion thereof. Where the DNA or cDNA does not comprise the entire coding sequence of the native cyanovirin, the DNA or cDNA can be subcloned as part of a gene fusion. In a transcriptional gene fusion, the DNA or cDNA will contain its own control sequence directing appropriate production of protein (e.g., ribosome binding site, translation initiation codon, etc.), and the transcriptional control sequences (e.g., promoter elements and/or enhancers) will be provided by the vector. In a translational gene fusion, transcriptional control sequences as well as at least some of the translational control sequences (i.e., the translational initiation codon) will be provided by the vector. In the case of a translational gene fusion, a chimeric protein will be produced.

Genes also can be constructed for specific fusion proteins containing a functional cyanovirin component plus a fusion component conferring additional desired attribute(s) to the composite protein. For example, a fusion sequence for a toxin or immunological reagent, as defined above, can be added to facilitate purification and analysis of the functional protein.

Genes can be specifically constructed to code for fusion proteins, which contain a cyanovirin coupled to an effector protein, such as a toxin or immunological reagent, for specific targeting to viral-infected, e.g., HIV and/or HIV-infected, cells. In these instances, the cyanovirin moiety serves not only as a neutralizing agent but also as a targeting agent to direct the effector activities of these molecules selectively against a given virus, such as HIV. Thus, for example, a therapeutic agent can be obtained by combining the HIV-targeting function of a functional cyanovirin with a toxin aimed at neutralizing infectious virus and/or by destroying cells producing infectious virus, such as HIV. Similarly, a therapeutic agent can be obtained, which combines the viral-targeting function of a cyanovirin with the multivalency and effector functions of various immunoglobulin subclasses.

Similar rationales underlie extensive developmental therapeutic efforts exploiting the HIV gp120-targeting properties of sCD4. For example, sCD4-toxin conjugates have been prepared in which sCD4 is coupled to a Pseudomonas exotoxin component (Chaudhary et al., in The Human Retrovirus, Gallo et al., eds., Academic Press: San Diego, 1991, pp. 379-387; and Chaudhary et al., Nature 335, 369-372, 1988), or to a diphtheria toxin component (Aullo et al., EMBO J. 11, 575-583, 1992) or to a ricin A-chain component (Till et al., Science 242, 1166-1167, 1988). Likewise, sCD4-immunoglobulin conjugates have been prepared in attempts to decrease the rate of in vivo clearance of functional sCD4 activity, to enhance placental transfer, and to effect a targeted recruitment of immunological mechanisms of pathogen elimination, such as phagocytic engulfment and killing by antibody-dependent cell-mediated cytotoxicity, to kill and/or remove HIV-infected cells and virus (Capon et al., Nature 337, 525-531, 1989; Traunecker et al., Nature 339, 68-70, 1989; and Langner et al., 1993, supra). While such CD4-immunoglobulin conjugates (sometimes called "immunoadhesins") have, indeed, shown advantageous pharmacokinetic and distributional attributes in vivo, and anti-HIV effects in Vitro, clinical results have been discouraging (Schooley et al., 1990, supra; Husson et al., 1992, supra; and Langner et al., 1993, supra). This is not surprising since clinical isolates of HIV, as opposed to laboratory strains, are highly resistant to binding and neutralization by sCD4 (Orloff et al., 1995, supra; and Moore et al., 1992, supra). Therefore, the extraordinarily broad targeting properties of a functional cyanovirin to viruses, e.g., primate retroviruses, in general, and clinical and laboratory strains, in particular (Boyd et al., 1995, supra; and Gustafson et al., 1995, supra), can be especially advantageous for combining with toxins, immunoglobulins and other selected effector proteins.

Viral-targeted conjugates can be prepared either by genetic engineering techniques (see, for example, Chaudhary et al., 1988, supra) or by chemical coupling of the targeting component with an effector component. The most feasible or appropriate technique to be used to construct a given cyanovirin conjugate or fusion protein will be selected based upon consideration of the characteristics of the particular effector molecule selected for coupling to a cyanovirin. For example, with a selected non-proteinaceous effector molecule, chemical coupling, rather than genetic engineering techniques, may be the only feasible option for creating the desired cyanovirin conjugate.

Accordingly, the present invention also provides nucleic acid molecules encoding cyanovirin fusion proteins. In particular, the present invention provides a nucleic acid molecule comprising SEQ ID NO:3 and substantially homologous sequences thereof. Also provided is a vector comprising a nucleic acid sequence encoding a cyanovirin fusion protein and a method of obtaining a cyanovirin fusion protein by expression of the vector encoding a cyanovirin fusion protein in a protein-synthesizing organism as described above. Accordingly, cyanovirin fusion proteins are also provided.

In view of the above, the present invention further provides an isolated and purified nucleic acid molecule, which comprises a cyanovirin coding sequence, such as one of the aforementioned nucleic acids, namely a nucleic acid molecule encoding an amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:2, a nucleic acid molecule encoding an amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:4, a nucleic acid molecule comprising a sequence of SEQ ID NO:1, or a nucleic acid molecule comprising a sequence of SEQ ID NO:3, coupled to a second nucleic acid encoding an effector protein. The first nucleic acid-preferably comprises a nucleic acid sequence encoding at least nine contiguous amino acids of the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:2, which encodes a functional cyanovirin, and the second nucleic acid preferably encodes an effector protein, such as a toxin or immunological reagent as described above.

Accordingly, the present invention also further provides an isolated and purified protein encoded by a nucleic acid molecule comprising a sequence of SEQ ID NO:1, a nucleic acid molecule comprising a sequence of SEQ ID NO:3, a nucleic acid molecule encoding an amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:2, or a nucleic acid molecule encoding an amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:4. Preferably, the aforementioned nucleic acid molecules encode at least nine contiguous amino acids of the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:2 coupled to an effector molecule, such as a toxin or immunological reagent as described above. Preferably, the effector molecule targets a virus, more preferably HIV, and, most preferably glycoprotein gp120. The coupling can be effected at the DNA level or by chemical coupling as described above. For example, a cyanovirin-effector protein conjugate of the present invention can be obtained by (a) selecting a desired effector protein or peptide; (b) synthesizing a composite DNA coding sequence comprising a first DNA coding sequence comprising one of the aforementioned nucleic acid sequences, which codes for a functional cyanovirin, coupled to a second DNA coding sequence for an effector protein or peptide, e.g., a toxin or immunological reagent; (c) expressing said composite DNA coding sequence in an appropriate protein-synthesizing organism; and (d) purifying the desired fusion protein or peptide to substantially pure form. Alternatively, a cyanovirin-effector molecule conjugate of the present invention can be obtained by (a) selecting a desired effector molecule and a cyanovirin or cyanovirin fusion protein; (b) chemically coupling the cyanovirin or cyanovirin fusion protein to the effector molecule; and (c) purifying the desired cyanovirin-effector molecule conjugate to substantially pure form.

Conjugates containing a functional cyanovirin coupled to a desired effector component, such as a toxin, immunological reagent, or other functional reagent, can be designed even more specifically to exploit the unique gp120-targeting properties of cyanovirins. Additional insights were gained from solid-phase ELISA experiments (Boyd et al., 1995, supra). Both C-terminal gp120-epitope-specific capture or CD4-receptor capture of gp120, when detected either with polyclonal HIV-1-Ig or with mouse MAb to the immunodominant, third hypervariable (V3) epitope (Matsushita et al., J. Virol. 62, 2107-2114, 1988), were strikingly inhibited by cyanovirin. Generally, engagement of the CD4 receptor does not interfere with antibody recognition of the V3 epitope, and vice versa (Moore et al., AIDS Res. Hum. Retrovir. 4, 369-379, 1988; and Matsushita et al., 1988, supra). However, cyanovirin apparently is capable of more global conformational effects on gp120, as evidenced by loss of immunoreactivity at multiple, distinct, non-overlapping epitopes. The range of antiviral activity (Boyd et al., 1995, supra) of cyanovirin against diverse CD4⁺ -tropic immunodeficiency virus strains in various target cells is remarkable; all tested strains of HIV-1, HIV-2 and SIV were similarly sensitive to cyanovirin; clinical isolates and laboratory strains showed essentially equivalent sensitivity. Cocultivation of chronically infected and uninfected CEM-SS cells with cyanovirin did not inhibit viral replication, but did cause a concentration-dependent inhibition of cell-to-cell fusion and virus transmission; similar results from binding and fusion inhibition assays employing HeLa-CD4-LTR-.beta.-galactosidase cells were consistent with cyanovirin inhibition of virus-cell and/or cell-cell binding.

The anti-viral, e.g., anti-HIV, activity of the cyanovirins and conjugates thereof of the present invention can be further demonstrated in a series of interrelated in vitro antiviral assays (Gulakowski et al., J. Virol. Methods 33, 87-100, 1991), which accurately predict for antiviral activity in humans. These assays measure the ability of compounds to prevent the replication of HIV and/or the cytopathic effects of HIV on human target cells. These measurements directly correlate with the pathogenesis of HIV-induced disease in vivo. The results of the analysis of the antiviral activity of cyanovirins or conjugates are believed to predict accurately the antiviral activity of these products in vivo in humans and, therefore, establish the utility of the present invention. Furthermore, since the present invention also provides methods of ex vivo use of cyanovirins and conjugates, the utility of cyanovirins and conjugates thereof is even more certain.

The cyanovirins and conjugates thereof of the present invention can be shown to inhibit a virus, specifically a retrovirus, such as the human immunodeficiency virus, i.e., HIV-1 or HIV-2. The cyanovirins and conjugates of the present invention could be used to inhibit other retroviruses as well as other viruses. Examples of viruses that may be treated in accordance with the present invention include, but are not limited to, Type C and Type D retroviruses, HTLV-1, HTLV-2, HIV, FLV, SIV, MLV, BLV, BIV, equine infectious virus, anemia virus, avian sarcoma viruses, such as Rous sarcoma virus (RSV), hepatitis type A, B, non-A and non-B viruses, arboviruses, varicella viruses, measles, mumps and rubella viruses.

Cyanovirins and conjugates thereof collectively comprise proteins and peptides, and, as such, are particularly susceptible to hydrolysis of amide bonds, (e.g., catalyzed by peptidases) and disruption of essential disulfide bonds or formation of inactivating or unwanted disulfide linkages (Carone et al., J. Lab. Clin. Med. 100, 1-14, 1982). There are various ways to alter molecular structure, if necessary, to provide enhanced stability to the cyanovirin or conjugate thereof (Wunsch, Biopolymers 22, 493-505, 1983; and Samanen, in Polymeric Materials in Medication, Gebelein et al., eds., Plenum Press: New York, 1985, pp. 227-242), which may be essential for preparation and use of pharmaceutical compositions containing cyanovirins or conjugates thereof for therapeutic or prophylactic applications against viruses, e.g., HIV. Possible options for useful chemical modifications of a cyanovirin or conjugate include, but are not limited to, the following (adapted from Samanen, J. M., 1985, supra): (a) olefin substitution, (b) carbonyl reduction, (c) D-amino acid substitution, (d) N .alpha.-methyl substitution, (e) C .alpha.-methyl substitution, (f) C .alpha.-C'-methylene insertion, (g) dehydro amino acid insertion, (h) retro-inverso modification, (i) N-terminal to C-terminal cyclization, and (j) thiomethylene modification. Cyanovirins and conjugates thereof also can be modified by covalent attachment of carbohydrate and polyoxyethylene derivatives, which are expected to enhance stability and resistance to proteolysis (Abuchowski et al., in Enzymes as Drugs, Holcenberg et al., eds., John Wiley: New York, 1981, pp. 367-378).

Other important general considerations for design of delivery strategy systems and compositions, and for routes of administration, for protein and peptide drugs, such as cyanovirins and conjugates thereof (Eppstein, CRC Crit. Rev. Therapeutic Drug Carrier Systems 5, 99-139, 1988; Siddiqui et al., CRC Crit. Rev. Therapeutic Drug Carrier Systems 3, 195-208, 1987); Banga et al., Int. J. Pharmaceutics 48, 15-50, 1988; Sanders, Eur. J. Drug Metab. Pharmacokinetics 15, 95-102, 1990; and Verhoef, Eur. J. Drug Metab. Pharmacokinetics 15, 83-93, 1990), also apply. The appropriate delivery system for a given cyanovirin or conjugate thereof will depend upon its particular nature, the particular clinical application, and the site of drug action. As with any protein or peptide drug, oral delivery of a cyanovirin or a conjugate thereof will likely present special problems, due primarily to instability in the gastrointestinal tract and poor absorption and bioavailability of intact, bioactive drug therefrom. Therefore, especially in the case of oral delivery, but also possibly in conjunction with other routes of delivery, it will be necessary to use an absorption-enhancing agent in combination with a given cyanovirin or conjugate thereof. A wide variety of absorption-enhancing agents have been investigated and/or applied in combination with protein and peptide drugs for oral delivery and for delivery by other routes (Verhoef, 1990, supra; van Hoogdalem, Pharmac. Ther. 44, 407-443, 1989; Davis, J. Pharm. Pharmacol. 44(Suppl. 1), 186-190, 1992). Most commonly, typical enhancers fall into the general categories of (a) chelators, such as EDTA, salicylates, and N-acyl derivatives of collagen, (b) surfactants, such as lauryl sulfate and polyoxyethylene-9-lauryl ether, (c) bile salts, such as glycholate and taurocholate, and derivatives, such as taurodihydrofusidate, (d) fatty acids, such as oleic acid and capric acid, and their derivatives, such as acylcarnitines, monoglycerides and diglycerides, (e) non-surfactants, such as unsaturated cyclic ureas, (f) saponins, (g) cyclodextrins, and (h) phospholipids.

Other approaches to enhancing oral delivery of protein and peptide drugs, such as the cyanovirins and conjugates thereof,, can include aforementioned chemical modifications to enhance stability to gastrointestinal enzymes and/or increased lipophilicity. Alternatively, or in addition, the protein or peptide drug can be administered in combination with other drugs or substances, which directly inhibit proteases and/or other potential sources of enzymatic degradation of proteins and peptides. Yet another alternative approach to prevent or delay gastrointestinal absorption of protein or peptide drugs, such as cyanovirins or conjugates, is to incorporate them into a delivery system that is designed to protect the protein or peptide from contact with the proteolytic enzymes in the intestinal lumen and to release the intact protein or peptide only upon reaching an area favorable for its absorption. A more specific example of this strategy is the use of biodegradable microcapsules or microspheres, both to protect vulnerable drugs from degradation, as well as to effect a prolonged release of active drug (Deasy, in Microencapsulation and Related Processes, Swarbrick, ed., Marcell Dekker, Inc.: New York, 1984, pp. 1-60, 88-89, 208-211). Microcapsules also can provide a useful way to effect a prolonged delivery of a protein and peptide drug, such as a cyanovirin or conjugate thereof, after injection (Maulding, J. Controlled Release 6, 167-176, 1987).

Given the aforementioned potential complexities of successful oral delivery of a protein or peptide drug, it is fortunate that there are numerous other potential routes of delivery of a protein or peptide drug, such as a cyanovirin or conjugate thereof. These routes include intravenous, intraarterial, intrathecal, intracisternal, buccal, rectal, nasal, pulmonary, transdermal, vaginal, ocular, and the like (Eppstein, 1988, supra; Siddiqui et al., 1987, supra; Banga et al., 1988, supra; Sanders, 1990, supra; Verhoef, 1990, supra; Barry, in Delivery Systems for Peptide Drugs, Davis et al., eds., Plenum Press: New York, 1986, pp. 265-275; and Patton et al., Adv. Drug Delivery Rev. 8, 179-196, 1992). With any of these routes, or, indeed, with any other route of administration or application, a protein or peptide: drug, such as a cyanovirin or conjugate thereof, may initiate an immunogenic reaction. In such situations it may be necessary to modify the molecule in order to mask immunogenic groups. It also can be possible to protect against undesired immune responses by judicious choice of method of formulation and/or administration. For example, site-specific delivery can be employed, as well as masking of recognition sites from the immune system by use or attachment of a so-called tolerogen, such as polyethylene glycol, dextran, albumin, and the like (Abuchowski et al., 1981, supra; Abuchowski et al., J. Biol. Chem. 252, 3578-3581, 1977; Lisi et al., J. Appl. Biochem. 4, 19-33, 1982; and Wileman et al., J. Pharm. Pharmacol. 38, 264-271, 1986). Such modifications also can have advantageous effects on stability and half-life both in vivo and ex vivo. Other strategies to avoid untoward immune reactions can also include the induction of tolerance by administration initially of only low doses. In any event, it will be apparent from the present disclosure to one skilled in the art that for any particular desired medical application or use of a cyanovirin or conjugate thereof, the skilled artisan can select from any of a wide variety of possible compositions, routes of administration, or sites of application, what is advantageous.

Accordingly, the antiviral cyanovirins and conjugates thereof of the present invention can be formulated into various compositions for use either in therapeutic treatment methods for infected individuals, or in prophylactic methods against viral, e.g., HIV, infection of uninfected individuals.

The present invention also provides a pharmaceutical composition, which comprises an antiviral effective amount of an isolated and purified cyanovirin or cyanovirin conjugate and a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier. The composition can further comprise an antiviral effective amount of at least one additional antiviral compound other than a cyanovirin or conjugate thereof. Suitable antiviral compounds include AZT, ddI, ddc, gancyclovir, fluorinated dideoxynucleosides, nevirapine, R82913, Ro 31-8959, BI-RJ-70, acyclovir, .alpha.-interferon, recombinant sCD4, michellamines, calanolides, nonoxynol-9, gossypol and derivatives thereof, and gramicidin. The cyanovirin used in the pharmaceutical composition can be isolated and purified from nature or genetically engineered. Similarly, the cyanovirin conjugate can be genetically engineered or chemically coupled.

The present inventive compositions can be used to treat a virally infected animal, such as a human. The compositions of the present invention are particularly useful ininhibiting the growth or replication of a virus, such as a retrovirus, in particular a human immunodeficiency virus, specifically HIV-1 and HIV-2. The compositions are useful in the therapeutic or prophylactic treatment of animals, such as humans, who are infected with a virus or who are at risk for viral infection, respectively. The compositions also can be used to treat objects or materials, such as medical equipment, supplies, or fluids, including biological fluids, such as blood, blood products, and tissues, to prevent viral infection of an animal, such as a human. Such compositions also are useful to prevent sexual transmission of viral infections, e.g., HIV, which is the primary way in which the world's AIDS cases are contracted (Merson, 1993, supra).

Potential virucides(used or being considered for use against sexual transmission of HIV are very limited; present agents in this category include nonoxynol-9 (Bird, AIDS 5, 791-796, 1991), gossypol and derivatives (Polsky et al., Contraception 39, 579-587, 1989; Lin, Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 33, 2149-2151, 1989; and Royer, Pharmacol. Res. 24, 407-412, 1991), and gramicidin (Bourinbair, Life Sci./Pharmacol. Lett. 54, PLS-9, 1994; and Bourinbair et al., Contraception 49, 131-137, 1994). The method of prevention of sexual transmission of viral infection, e.g., HIV infection, in accordance with the present invention comprises vaginal, rectal, oral, penile or other topical treatment with an antiviral effective amount of a cyanovirin and/or cyanovirin conjugate, alone or in combination with another antiviral compound as described above.

Compositions for use in the prophylactic or therapeutic treatment methods of the present invention comprise one or more cyanovirin(s) or conjugate(s) thereof and a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier. Pharmaceutically acceptable carriers are well-known to those who are skilled in the art, as are suitable methods of administration. The choice of carrier will be determined in part by the particular cyanovirin or conjugate thereof, as well as by the particular method used to administer the composition.

One skilled in the art will appreciate that various routes of administering a drug are available, and, although more than one route may be used to administer a particular drug, a particular route may provide more immediate and more effective reaction than another route. Furthermore, one skilled in the art will appreciate that the particular pharmaceutical carrier employed will depend, in part, upon the particular cyanovirin or conjugate thereof employed, and the chosen route of administration. Accordingly, there is a wide variety of suitable formulations of the composition of the present invention.

Formulations suitable for oral administration can consist of liquid solutions, such as an effective amount of the compound dissolved in diluents, such as water, saline, or fruit juice, capsules, sachets or tablets, each containing a predetermined amount of the active ingredient, as solid or granules; solutions or suspensions in an aqueous liquid; and oil-in-water; emulsions or water-in-oil emulsions. Tablet forms can include one or more of lactose, mannitol, corn starch, potato starch, microcrystalline cellulose, acacia, gelatin, colloidal silicon dioxide, croscarmellose sodium, talc, magnesium stearate, stearic acid, and other excipients, colorants, diluents, buffering agents, moistening agents, preservatives, flavoring agents, and pharmacologically compatible carriers. Suitable formulations for oral delivery can also be incorporated into synthetic and natural polymeric microspheres, or other means to protect the agents of the present invention from degradation within the gastrointestinal tract (see, for example, Wallace et al., Science 260, 912-915, 1993).

The cyanovirins or conjugates thereof, alone or in combination with other antiviral compounds, can be made into aerosol formulation s to be administered via inhalation. These aerosol formulations can be placed into pressurized acceptable propellants, such as dichlorodifluoromethane, propane, nitrogen and the like.

The cyanovirins or conjugates thereof, alone or in combinations with other antiviral compounds or absorption modulators, can he made into suitable formulations for transdermal application and absorption (Wallace et al., 1993, supra). Transdermal eledtroporation or iontophoresis also can be used to promote and/or control the systemic delivery of the compounds and/or compositions of the present invention through the skin (e.g., see Theiss et al., Meth. Find. Ex. Clin. Pharmacol. 13, 353-359, 1991).

Formulations suitable for topical administration include lozenges comprising the active ingredient in a flavor, usually sucrose and acacia or tragacanth; pastilles comprising the active ingredient in an inert base, such as gelatin and glycerin, or sucrose and acacia; and mouthwashes comprising the active ingredient in a suitable liquid carrier; as well as creams, emulsions, gels and the: like containing, in addition to the active ingredient, such carriers as are known in the art.

Formulations for rectal administration can be presented as a suppository with a suitable base comprising, for example, cocoa butter or a salicylate. Formulations suitable for vaginal administration can be presented as pessaries; tampons, creams, gels, pastes, foams, or spray formulas containing, in addition to the active ingredient, such carriers as are known in the art to be appropriate. Similarly, the active ingredient can be combined with a lubricant as a coating on a condom.

Formulations suitable for parenteral administration include aqueous and non-aqueous, isotonic sterile injection solutions, which can contain anti-oxidants, buffers, bacteriostats, and solutes that render the formulation isotonic with the blood of the intended recipient, and aqueous and non-aqueous sterile suspensions that can include suspending agents, solubilizers, thickening agents, stabilizers, and preservatives. The formulations can be presented in unit-dose or multi-dose sealed containers, such as ampules and vials, and can be stored in a freeze-dried (lyophilized) condition requiring only the addition of the sterile liquid carrier, for example, water, for injections, immediately prior to use. Extemporaneous injection solutions and suspensions can be prepared from sterile powders, granules, and tablets of the kind previously described.

Formulations comprising a cyanovirin or cyanovirin conjugate suitable for virucidal (e.g., HIV) sterilization of inanimate objects, such as medical supplies or equipment, laboratory equipment and supplies, instruments, devices, and the like, can, for example, be selected or adapted as appropriate, by one skilled in the art, from any of the aforementioned compositions or formulations. Preferably, the cyanovirin is produced by recombinant DNA technology. The cyanovirin conjugate can be produced by recombinant DNA technology or by chemical coupling of a cyanovirin with an effector molecule as described above. Similarly, formulations suitable for ex vivo virucidal sterilization of blood, blood products, sperm, or other bodily products or tissues, or any other solution, suspension, emulsion or any other material which can be administered to a patient in a medical procedure, can be selected or adapted as appropriate by one skilled in the art, from any of the aforementioned compositions or formulations. However, suitable formulations for such ex vivo applications or for virucidal treatment of inanimate objects are by no means limited to any of the aforementioned formulations or compositions. One skilled in the art will appreciate that a suitable or appropriate formulation can be selected, adapted or developed based upon the particular application at hand.

For ex Vivo uses, such as virucidal treatments of inanimate objects or materials, blood or blood products, or tissues, the amount of cyanovirin, or conjugate or composition thereof, to be employed should be sufficient that any virus or virus producing cells present will be rendered noninfectious or will be destroyed. For example, for HIV, this would require that the virus and/or the virus-producing cells be exposed to concentrations of cyanovirin-N in the range of 0.1-1000 nM. Similar considerations apply to in vivo applications. Therefore, the designation of "antiviral effective amount" is used generally to describe the amount of a particular cyanovirin, conjugate or composition thereof required for antiviral efficacy in any given application.

For in vivo uses, the dose of a cyanovirin, or conjugate or composition thereof, administered to an animal, particularly a human, in the context of the present invention should be sufficient to effect a prophylactic or therapeutic response in the individual over a reasonable time frame. The dose used to achieve a desired antiviral concentration in vivo (e.g., 0.1-1000 nM) will be determined by the potency of the particular cyanovirin or conjugate employed, the severity of the disease state of infected individuals, as well as, in the case of systemic administration, the body weight and age of the infected individual. The size of the dose also will be determined by the existence of any adverse side effects that may accompany the particular cyanovirin, or conjugate or composition thereof, employed. It is always desirable, whenever possible, to keep adverse side effects to a minimum.

The dosage can be in unit dosage form, such as a tablet or capsule. The term "unit dosage form" as used herein refers to physically discrete units suitable as unitary dosages for human and animal subjects, each unit containing a predetermined quantity of a cyanovirin or conjugate thereof, alone or in combination with other antiviral agents, calculated in an amount sufficient to produce the desired effect in association with a pharmaceutically acceptable diluent, carrier, or vehicle.

The specifications for the unit dosage forms of the present invention depend on the particular cyanovirin, or conjugate or composition thereof, employed and the effect to be achieved, as well as the pharmacodynamics associated with each cyanovirin, or conjugate or composition thereof, in the host. The dose administered should be an "antiviral effective amount" or an amount necessary to achieve an "effective level" in the individual patient.

Since the "effective level" is used as the preferred endpoint for dosing, the actual dose and schedule can vary, depending upon interindividual differences in pharmacokinetics, drug-distribution, and metabolism. The "effective level" can be defined, for example, as the blood or tissue level (e.g., 0.1-1000 nM) desired in the patient that corresponds to a concentration of one or more cyanovirin or conjugate thereof, which inhibits a virus, such as HIV, in an assay known to predict for clinical antiviral activity of chemical compounds and biological agents. The "effective level" for agents of the present invention also can vary when the cyanovirin, or conjugate or composition thereof, is used in combination with AZT or other known antiviral compounds or combinations thereof.

One skilled in the art can easily determine the appropriate dose, schedule, and method of administration for the exact formulation of the composition being used, in order to achieve the desired "effective concentration" in the individual patient. One skilled in the art also can readily determine and use an appropriate indicator of the "effector concentration" of the compounds of the present invention by a direct (e.g., analytical chemical analysis) or indirect (e.g., with surrogate indicators such as p24 or RT) analysis of appropriate patient samples (e.g., blood and/or tissues).

In the treatment of some virally infected individuals, it can be desirable to utilize a "mega-dosing" regimen, wherein a large dose of the cyanovirin or conjugate thereof is administered, time is allowed for the drug to act, and then a suitable reagent is administered to the individual to inactivate the drug.

The pharmaceutical composition can contain other pharmaceuticals, in conjunction with the cyanovirin or conjugate thereof, when used to therapeutically treat a viral infection, such as that which results in AIDS. Representative examples of these additional pharmaceuticals include antiviral compounds, virucides, immunomodulators, immunostimulants, antibiotics and absorption enhancers. Exemplary antiviral compounds include AZT, ddI, ddC, gancylclovir, fluorinated dideoxynucleosides, nonnucleoside analog compounds, such as nevirapine (Shih et al., PNAS 88, 9878-9882, 1991), TIBO derivatives, such as R82913 (White et al., Antiviral Res. 16, 257-266, 1991), BI-RJ-70 (Merigan, Am. J. Med. 90 (Suppl.4A), 8S-17S, 1991), michellamines (Boyd et al., J. Med. Chem. 37, 1740-1745, 1994) and calanolides (Kashman et al., J. Med. Chem. 35, 2735-2743, 1992), nonoxynol-9, gossypol and derivatives, and gramicidin (Bourinbair et al., 1994, sulra). Exemplary immunomodulators and immunostimulants include various interleukins, sCD4, cytokines, antibody preparations, blood transfusions, and cell transfusions. Exemplary antibiotics include antifungal agents, antibacterial agents, and anti-Pneumocystitis carnii agents. Exemplary absorption enhancers include bile salts and other surfactants, saponins, cyclodextrins, and phospholipids (Davis, 1992, supra).

Administration of a cyanovirin or conjugate thereof with other anti-retroviral agents and particularly with known RT inhibitors, such as ddC, AZT, ddI, ddA, or other inhibitors that act against other HIV proteins, such as anti-TAT agents, is expected to inhibit most or all replicative stages of the viral life cycle. The dosages of ddC and AZT used in AIDS or ARC patients have been published. A virustatic range of ddCis generally between 0.05 .mu.M to 1.0 .mu.M. A range of about 0.005-0.25 mg/kg body weight is virustatic in most patients. The preliminary dose ranges for oral administration are somewhat broader, for example 0.001 to 0.25 mg/kg given in one or more doses at intervals of 2, 4, 6, 8, 12, etc. hours. Currently, 0.01 mg/kg body weight ddC given every 8 hrs is preferred. When given in combined therapy, the other antiviral compound, for example, can be given at the same time as the cyanovirin or conjugate thereof or the dosing can be staggered as desired. The two drugs also can be combined in a composition. Doses of each can be less when used in combination than when either is used alone.

It will also be appreciated by one skilled in the art that a DNA sequence of a cyanovirin or conjugate thereof of the present invention can be inserted ex vivo into mammalian cells previously removed from a given animal, in particular a human, host. Such cells can be employed to express the corresponding cyanovirin or conjugate in vivo after reintroduction into the host Feasibility of such a therapeutic strategy to deliver a therapeutic amount of an agent in close proximity to the desired target cells and pathogens, i.e., virus, more particularly retrovirus, specifically HIV and its envelope glycoprotein gp120, has been demonstrated in studies with cells engineered( ex vivo to express sCD4 (Morgan et al., 1994, supra). It is also possible that, as an alternative to ex vivo insertion of the DNA sequences of the present invention, such sequences can be inserted into cells directly in vivo, such as by use of an appropriate viral vector. Such cells transfected in vivo are expected to produce antiviral amounts of cyanovirin or a conjugate thereof directly in vivo.

Claim 1 of 42 Claims

What is claimed is:

1. A method of inhibiting prophylactically or therapeutically a viral infection of a host, which method comprises topically administering to a host an antiviral effective amount of a formulation comprising an isolated and purified antiviral agent selected from the group consisting of an antiviral protein, an antiviral peptide, an antiviral protein conjugate, and an antiviral peptide conjugate, wherein said antiviral protein or antiviral peptide is encoded by an isolated and purified nucleic acid molecule encoding an amino acid sequence at least about 90% homologous to SEQ ID NO: 2, wherein the amino acid sequence has antiviral activity, whereupon administration of said antiviral effective amount of said formulation, said viral infection is inhibited.
 

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