Patent 6,835,717

Methods of reducing the risk of transmission of a sexually transmitted pathogen by contacting the pathogen or cells susceptible to infection by the pathogen with a .beta.-cyclodextrin are provided. Methods for reducing the risk of transmission of a sexually transmitted pathogen to or from a subject by contacting the pathogen or cells susceptible to the pathogen in the subject with a pharmaceutical composition containing a .beta.-cyclodextrin also are provided. Accordingly, pharmaceutical compositions, which include 1) a .beta.-cyclodextrin, which is in an amount that blocks passage of the pathogen through lipid rafts in the membrane of a cell susceptible to the pathogen, and 2) a contraceptive, an agent for treating a sexually transmitted disease, a lubricant, or a combination thereof, are provided, as are composition formulated from a solid substrate that contains an amount of .beta.-cyclodextrin useful for reducing the risk of transmission of a sexually transmitted pathogen.

Description of the Invention

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

1. Field of the Invention

The invention relates generally to agents and methods for preventing a viral or microbial infection and, more specifically, to compositions containing a .beta.-cyclodextrin and methods of using such compositions to reduce the risk of transmission of a sexually transmitted disease.

2. Background Information

Sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) are among the most common types of infections. Three bacterial STDs--gonorrhea, chlamydial infections, and syphilis--are particularly common, and account for a great deal of morbidity, including infertility, ectopic pregnancy, and loss of productivity (see Harrison's "Principles of Internal Medicine" 13th edition (ed. Isselbacher et al.; McGraw-Hill, Inc. 1994), chapter 88). Among the viral STDs, human papilloma virus and hepatitis B virus are among the most common, and are associated with cervical carcinoma and hepatocellular carcinoma, respectively.

In the past couple of decades, acquired immunodeficiency disease (AIDS) associated with sexual transmission of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) has emerged as a global health threat. In industrialized countries, education as to the use of condoms and the practice of "safe sex" reduced the levels of new HIV infection and of AIDS deaths following a peak in the mid-1990's. However, the decreased number of AIDS deaths and the availability of medications that appear to increase the life spans of AIDS patients may have created a false sense of security, and it now appears that this trend may reverse. In many non-industrialized countries, AIDS is an epidemic, and it is not inconceivable that millions may die from this disease in the next few years.

HIV can be transmitted in a number of ways, including through contaminated blood products, and from mother to offspring during gestation, child birth or breast feeding. However, newly acquired HIV infections are largely the result of sexual contact, particularly heterosexual contact. A number of factors appear to determine whether HIV is transmitted sexually, including the type of sex act, susceptibility of the exposed partner, infectivity of the infected partner, and the biological properties of the particular HIV subtype.

Prevention of the spread of HIV infection requires interventions of both the infected and uninfected populations. In particular, since only a small percentage of HIV-infected individuals are aware of their carrier status, a significant prevention effort must be made by the susceptible population. Mechanical barriers such as condoms can be effective in preventing sexual transmission of HIV. However, this method is not always accepted by male partners, and can be impractical for use by women. Topical microbicides currently available have proven inadequate, and the widely used surfactant microbicide, nonoxynol-9, which is used as a spermicide, may actually increase HIV infection by inducing genital ulcerations. Thus, in the absence of an effective vaccine, other biomedical methods must be identified, particularly those that can be practiced by the susceptible population.

Semen from HIV infected men and cervical mucus from HIV infected women contain free virus as well as HIV-infected cells and, sexual transmission of HIV may occur due to both forms of the virus. Thus, a need exists for a therapeutic agent that reduces or eliminates transmission of free HIV as well as cell-associate virus infection, thereby reducing the risk of transmission of HIV and other sexually transmitted pathogens. The present invention satisfies this need and provides additional advantages.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

The present invention relates to methods of reducing the risk of transmission of a sexually transmitted pathogen, including cell-associated and cell-free sexually transmitted pathogens. In one embodiment, a method of the invention is performed by contacting the pathogen or cells susceptible to infection by the pathogen with a .beta.-cyclodextrin (.beta.CD). The pathogen can be any pathogen involved in the etiology of a sexually transmitted disease, particularly a pathogen that infects a susceptible cell through contact with lipid rafts in the membrane of the cell. As such, the pathogen can be an enveloped virus, for example, an immunodeficiency virus such as human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), a T lymphotrophic virus such as human T lymphotrophic virus (HTLV), a herpesvirus such as a herpes simplex virus (HSV), a measles virus, or an influenza virus. The pathogen also can be a microbial pathogen, for example, a bacterium, a yeast such as a Candida spp., a mycoplasma, a protozoan such as a Trichomona spp., or a Chlamydia spp. The .beta.CD can be any .beta.CD derivative, for example, 2-hydroxypropyl-.beta.-cyclodextrin.

In another embodiment, a method of the invention provides a means to reduce the risk of transmission of a sexually transmitted pathogen to or from a subject, which can be any subject susceptible to a sexually transmitted disease, for example, a vertebrate, particularly a mammal, including a human. Such a method can be performed, for example, by contacting the pathogen or cells susceptible to infection by the pathogen in the subject with a pharmaceutical composition comprising a .beta.-cyclodextrin (.beta.CD), thereby reducing the risk of the subject becoming infected with the sexually transmitted the pathogen. Such a method also can be performed, for example, by contacting the pathogen or cells susceptible to infection by the pathogen in a subject having a sexually transmitted disease with a pharmaceutical composition comprising a .beta.CD, thereby reducing the risk of transmission of the sexually transmitted disease by the subject.

The cells susceptible to infection by the pathogen can be any cells depending, in part, on the pathogen, including epithelial cells, particularly vaginal epithelial cells or rectal epithelial cells. Furthermore, the cells susceptible to infection, as well as the pathogen in a cell-free form, can be present in a secretion produced by the subject, for example, in semen or in a vaginal secretion. The pharmaceutical composition can be formulated in a solution, a gel, a foam, an ointment, a cream, a paste, a spray, or the like; or can be formulated as a component of a suppository, a film, a sponge, a condom, a bioadhesive polymer, a diaphragm, or the like; and can contain, in addition to the .beta.CD, one or more agents useful to a sexually active subject, for example, a contraceptive, an antimicrobial or antiviral agent, a lubricant, or a combination thereof.

The present invention also relates to a pharmaceutical composition, which includes 1) .beta.CD, which is in an amount that blocks passage of the pathogen through lipid rafts in the membrane of a cell susceptible to the pathogen, and 2) a contraceptive, an antimicrobial or antiviral agent, a lubricant, or a combination thereof. A contraceptive useful in a pharmaceutical composition of the invention can be any contraceptive, for example, a spermicide. Similarly, an antimicrobial or antiviral agent for treating a sexually transmitted disease can be any agent that generally is used to treat or prevent infection by a sexually transmitted pathogen, or an opportunistic pathogen associated with a sexually transmitted disease, including, for example, an antibiotic.

The present invention further relates to a composition, comprising a solid substrate that contains an amount of .beta.CD useful for reducing the risk of transmission of a sexually transmitted pathogen. The solid substrate can be a barrier, which is composed of a relatively impermeable substrate, for example, a condom, diaphragm, vaginal film or glove, which contains the .beta.CD at least on its surface; or can be composed of an absorptive material, for example, a sponge or a tampon, which contains the .beta.-cyclodextrin incorporated therein.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

The present invention provides methods of reducing the risk of transmission of a sexually transmitted pathogen. A method of the invention is based, in part, on the determination that entry of a sexually transmitted pathogen, for example, a sexually transmitted enveloped virus, into a cell depends, at least in part, on the presence of lipid rafts in the membranes of cells susceptible to the pathogen, and the determination that contact of such susceptible cells or of the pathogen with a .beta.-cyclodextrin, which disrupts the structure of lipid rafts, blocks the ability of the pathogen to infect an otherwise susceptible cell.

.beta.-cyclodextrins (.beta.CDs) are widely used as solubilizing agents, stabilizers, and inert excipients in pharmaceutical compositions (see U.S. Pat. Nos. 6,194,430; 6,194,395; and 6,191,137, each of which is incorporated herein by reference). .beta.CDs are cyclic compounds containing seven units of .alpha.-(1 4) linked D-glucopyranose units, and act as complexing agents that can form inclusion complexes and have concomitant solubilizing properties (see U.S. Pat. No. 6,194,395; see, also, Szejtli, J. Cyclodextrin Technol, 1988). As disclosed herein, .beta.CDs also can block passage of a sexually transmitted pathogen through the membrane of a susceptible cell by disrupting the lipid rafts in cell membrane.

The compositions and methods of the invention are exemplified using 2-hydroxypropyl-.beta.CD (2-OH-.beta.CD). However, any .beta.CD derivative can be used in a composition or method of the invention, provided the .beta.CD derivative disrupts lipid rafts in the membranes of cells susceptible to a sexually transmitted pathogen without causing undesirable side effects (see Example 3). .beta.CDs act, in part, by removing cholesterol from cell membranes, and different .beta.CDs are variably effective in such removal. For example, methyl-.beta.CD removes cholesterol from cell membranes very efficiently and quickly and, as a result, can be toxic to cells, which require cholesterol for membrane integrity and viability. In comparison, a .beta.CD derivative such as 2-OH-.beta.CD can effectively remove cholesterol from cells without producing undue toxicity. Thus, it will be recognized that a .beta.CD useful in a composition or method of the invention is one that removes cholesterol in an amount that disrupts lipid rafts, without substantially reducing cell viability (see, for example, Rothblat and Phillips, J. Biol. Chem. 257:4775-4782, 1982, which is incorporated herein by reference).

.beta.CDs useful in the present invention include, for example, .beta.CD derivatives wherein one or more of the hydroxy groups is substituted by an alkyl, hydroxyalkyl, carboxyalkyl, alkylcarbonyl, carboxyalkoxyalkyl, alkylcarbonyloxyalkyl, alkoxycarbonylalkyl or hydroxy-(mono or polyalkoxy)alkyl group or the like; and wherein each alkyl or alkylene moiety contains up to about six carbons. Substituted .beta.CDs that can be used in the present invention include, for example, polyethers (see, for example, U.S. Pat. No. 3,459,731, which is incorporated herein by reference); ethers, wherein the hydrogen of one or more .beta.CD hydroxy groups is replaced by C1 to C6 alkyl, hydroxy-C1-C6-alkyl, carboxy-C1-C6 alkyl, C1-C6 alkyloxycarbonyl-C1-C6 alkyl groups, or mixed ethers thereof. In such substituted .beta.CDs, the hydrogen of one or more .beta.CD hydroxy group can be replaced by C1-C3 alkyl, hydroxy-C2-C4 alkyl, or carboxy-C1-C2 alkyl, for example, by methyl, ethyl, hydroxyethyl, hydroxypropyl, hydroxybutyl, carboxymethyl or carboxyethyl. It should be recognized that the term "C1-C6 alkyl" includes straight and branched saturated hydrocarbon radicals, having from 1 to 6 carbon atoms. Examples of .beta.CD ethers include dimethyl-.beta.CD. Examples of .beta.CD polyethers include hydroxypropyl-p-.beta.CD and hydroxyethyl-.beta.CD (see, for example, Nogradi, "Drugs of the Future" 9(8):577-578, 1984; Chemical and Pharmaceutical Bulletin 28: 1552-1558, 1980; Yakugyo Jiho No. 6452 (28 Mar. 1983); Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. Engl. 19: 344-362, 1980; U.S. Pat. No. 3,459,731; EP-A-0,149,197; EP-A-0,197,571; U.S. Pat. No. 4,535,152; WO-90/12035; GB-2,189,245; Szejtli, "Cyclodextrin Technology" (Kluwer Academic Publ. 1988); Bender et al., "Cyclodextrin Chemistry" (Springer-Verlag, Berlin 1978); French, Adv. Carb. Chem. 12:189-260; Croft and Bartsch, Tetrahedron 39:1417-1474, 1983; Irie et al., Pharm. Res. 5:713-716, 1988; Pitha et al., Internat'l. J. Pharm. 29:73, 1986; U.S. Pat. No. 5,134,127 A; U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,659,696 and 4,383,992, each of which is incorporated herein by reference; see, also, U.S. Pat. No. 6,194,395).

In one embodiment, a method of the invention is performed by contacting the pathogen or cells susceptible to infection by the pathogen with a .beta.CD. As used herein, reference to cells being "susceptible" to infection by a sexually transmitted pathogen means that the membranes of the cells contain lipid rafts, to which the pathogen can associate and through which it can traverse the membrane. Cells susceptible to a sexually transmitted pathogen are exemplified by vaginal epithelial cells, which contain lipid rafts that are used by HIV to traverse the cell membrane (see Example 1).

As used herein, the term "sexually transmitted pathogen" refers to any viral or microbial organism that causes a sexually transmitted disease. The term "sexually transmitted disease" refers to a disease that is transmitted through sexual contact with an infected individual. Sexually transmitted diseases and the sexually associated pathogens associated therewith are well known in the art and include, for example, those caused by bacteria such as gonorrhea (Neisseria gonnorrhoeae) and syphilis (Treponema pallidum), and infections due to Chlamydia spp. such as C. trachomatis, Calymmatobacterium granulomatis, Ureaplasma urealyticum, Mycoplasma hominus, Gardnerella vaginalis, and Group B Streptococcus spp.; those caused by viruses such AIDS (HIV-1 and HIV-2), genital herpes (Herpes simplex type 2; HSV-2), and infections due to human T lymphotrophic virus type I (HTLV-1), human papillomaviruses, Cytomegalovirus, Molluscum contagiosum virus, hepatitis B virus, and possibly HSV-1, HTLV-II, and Epstein-Barr virus; and those due to yeast such as Candida spp., for example, C. albicans, or to protozoans such as Trichomona spp., for example, T. vaginalis (see Harrison's" "Principles of Internal Medicine", supra, 1994).

As disclosed herein, where a sexually transmitted disease is due to infection by a pathogen that traverses a susceptible cell through lipid rafts in the membrane of the cell, the risk of transmission of the pathogen can be reduced by contacting the pathogen or the cell with a .beta.CD (see Examples 2 to 4). As used herein, the term "reducing the risk of transmission of a sexually transmitted pathogen" means that the likelihood that the pathogen will infect a susceptible cell is decreased due to contact of the pathogen or the cell with a .beta.CD as compared to the likelihood of infection of the cell in the absence of .beta.CD treatment. The likelihood of infection of such cells (i.e., untreated or contacted with a .beta.CD) can be determined by examining populations of such cells and determining the levels of infection of the cells by the pathogen using methods as disclosed herein or otherwise known in the art (see Examples 2 to 4).

A method of the invention is performed, for example, by contacting the pathogen or cells susceptible to infection by the pathogen with a .beta.CD. As used herein, the term "contacting," when used in reference to a .beta.CD and the pathogen or cells susceptible to a sexually transmitted pathogen, means that the .beta.CD is placed in sufficient proximity to the pathogen or the susceptible cells such that it prevents the pathogen from entering a cell through lipid rafts or such that it disrupts lipid rafts in the membranes of the susceptible cells. Thus, the .beta.CD can be added to cells in culture, for example, thereby contacting the cells with the .beta.CD; or can be inserted into vagina or rectum of a subject either in a liquid or liquid-like form such as a gel, foam, or the like, or as a suppository, or in combination with a solid substrate such as a condom, thereby contacting the sexually transmitted pathogen or the cells susceptible to the pathogen in vivo.

The significance of detergent-insoluble, glycolipid-enriched membrane domains ("lipid rafts") has been demonstrated, particularly in regard to activation and signaling in T lymphocytes. Lipid rafts can be viewed as floating rafts composed of sphingolipids and cholesterol that sequester glycosylphosphatidylinositol--(GPI)-linked proteins such as Thy-1 and CD59. CD45, a 200 kDa transmembrane phosphatase protein, is excluded from these domains. Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) particles produced by infected T cell lines acquire the GPI-linked proteins Thy-1 and CD59, as well as the ganglioside GM1, which is known to partition preferentially into lipid rafts. In contrast, despite its high expression on the cell surface, CD45 is poorly incorporated into virus particles. Confocal fluorescence microscopy revealed that HIV-1 proteins colocalized with Thy-1, CD59, GM1, and a lipid raft-specific fluorescent lipid, DiIC16 (see below), in uropods of infected Jurkat cells. CD45 did not colocalize with HIV-1 proteins and was excluded from uropods. Dot immunoassay of TRITON X-100 detergent-extracted membrane fractions revealed that HIV-1 p17 matrix protein and gp41 were present in the detergent-resistant fractions and that (³ H)-myristic acid-labeled HIV Gag showed a nine-to-one enrichment in lipid rafts. As disclosed herein, the budding of HIV virions through lipid rafts is associated with the presence of host cell cholesterol, sphingolipids, and GPI-linked proteins within these domains in the viral envelope, indicating preferential sorting of HIV Gag to lipid rafts (see Example 1).

Glycolipid-enriched membrane (GEM) domains are organized areas on the cell surface enriched in cholesterol, sphingolipids, and GPI-linked proteins. These domains have been described as "rafts" that serve as moving platforms on the cell surface (Shaw and Dustin, Immunity 6:361-369, 1997). The domains, now referred to as "lipid rafts," exist in a more ordered state, conferring resistance to TRITON X-100 detergent treatment at 4^oC. (Schroeder et al., J. Biol. Chem. 273:1150-1157, 1998). Many proteins are associated with lipid rafts, including GPI-linked proteins, Src family kinases, protein kinase C, actin and actin-binding proteins, heterotrimeric and small G proteins, and caveolin (see, for example, Ami et al., Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 225:8001-807, 1996; Cinek and Horejsi, J. Immunol. 149:2262-2270, 1992; Robbins et al., Mol. Cell. Biol. 15:3507-3515, 1995; and Sargiacomo et al., J. Cell. Biol. 122:789-807, 1993). Saturated acyl chains of the GPI anchor have been shown to be a determinant for the association of GPI-linked proteins with lipid rafts (Rodgers et al., Mol. Cell. Biol. 14:5384-5391, 1994; Schroeder et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 91:12130-12134, 1994). Lipid rafts exclude certain transmembrane molecules, specifically the membrane phosphatase CD45 (Ame et al., supra, 1996; Rodgers and Rose, J. Cell. Biol. 135:1515-1523, 1996). Exclusion of CD45 results in the accumulation of phosphorylated signaling molecules in lipid rafts, and T cell activation requires clustering of signaling molecules in these membrane domains (Lanzavecchia et al., Cell 96:1-4, 1999).

HIV-1 excludes CD45 from its membrane, despite the abundance of CD45 on the cell surface. This result was in contrast to that observed for other membrane proteins, some of which are expressed at lower levels than CD45, but were efficiently incorporated by the virus (Orentas and Hildreth, AIDS Res. Hum. Retrovir. 9:1157-1165, 1993, which is incorporated herein by reference). CD45 is a large, heavily glycosylated, multiply spliced transmembrane protein that has two cytoplasmic tyrosine phosphatase domains. Extracellularly, it may extend as much as 40 nm from the cell surface, while intracellularly it has a large cytoplasmic tail of 707 amino acids. CD45 is one of the most highly expressed leukocyte surface proteins, and as much as 10 to 25% of the lymphocyte cell surface can be covered with CD45. If HIV-1 incorporated host proteins in a random manner, a significant number of CD45 molecules should be present on the virus.

As disclosed herein, CD45 is excluded from HIV-1 particles as a result of virus budding from lipid rafts, which also exclude CD45 (Example 1). HIV-1 incorporates the lipid raft-specific ganglioside, GM1, as well as GPI-linked proteins Thy-1 and CD59. Confocal fluorescence microscopy showed that viral proteins colocalize with Thy-1, CD59, GM1, and 1,19-dihexadecyl-3,3,39,39-tetramethyl indocarbocyanine (DiIC16; Arthur et al., Science 258:1935-1938, 1992, which is incorporated herein by reference), a fluorescent dye that partitions to ordered domains in uropods on infected cells. In contrast, CD45 is excluded from these GPI-linked protein-rich membrane projections. Upon membrane fractionation, HIV matrix (MA) and gp41, the transmembrane subunit of envelope (Env), are present in detergent-resistant, GPI-linked protein-rich fractions, confirming their association with lipid rafts. Specifically, myristylated Gag localizes predominantly to the detergent resistant lipid rafts. These results indicate that HIV-1 budding occurs through lipid rafts, thereby accounting for the cholesterol-rich, sphingolipid-rich virus membrane, which bears GPI-linked proteins such as Thy-1 and CD59, but lacks CD45.

Lipid raft-associated molecules, including the GPI-anchored proteins Thy-1 and CD59 and the ganglioside GM1, colocalized with HIV-1 proteins on the cell surface as determined by confocal fluorescence microscopy (Example 1). Virus phenotyping with MAbs also indicated that these molecules were incorporated into HIV-1 particles. In contrast, CD45 was excluded from HIV-1 protein-rich uropods and was also excluded from the viral membrane. Similarly, DiIC16 colocalized with HIV-1 proteins, while DiIC12, a lipid analog that prefers fluid membrane domains, was excluded from these areas. Dot blot immunoassays of membrane fractions confirmed the presence of HIV-1 gp41 and MA proteins in lipid rafts, and labeling of cells with tritiated myristic acid and immunoprecipitation showed the partitioning of myristylated Gag to lipid rafts.

It was previously reported that HIV-1 acquires CD55 (DAF) and CD59, which inhibit steps in the complement pathway (Marschang et al., Eur. J. Immunol. 25:285-290, 1995; Saifuddin et al., J. Gen. Virol. 78:1907-1911, 1997). CD55 and CD59 are GPI-linked proteins that are enriched in GEM domains and, together, provide an advantage for the virus by shielding it from lysis and from neutralization by complement. The results disclosed herein confirm and extend the previous observations by demonstrating that HIV-1 incorporates GPI-anchored proteins, which preferentially sort to lipid rafts, and that lipid rafts are the cell membrane microdomains from which HIV-1 buds (Example 1). The high concentration of cholesterol and sphingolipids in lipid rafts explains the high levels of these lipids in the membrane of HIV-1 and supports this model of HIV-1 budding. Interestingly, inhibition of cholesterol synthesis decreases the production of virus from infected cells (Maziere et al., Biomed. Pharmacother. 48:63-67, 1994). Since it is unlikely that viral proteins can aggregate individual cholesterol and sphingolipid molecules, the Gag (MA) protein may preferentially interact with existing lipid rafts, where aggregation of Gag (MA) molecules can initiate virus budding. In this manner, sphingolipid-rich and cholesterol-rich lipid rafts can be efficiently taken up by new viruses during budding.

The role of lipid rafts in viral infection can further be extended to viruses other than HIV. For example, selective budding occurs for an influenza virus, fowl plague virus, from ordered lipid domains (Scheiffele et al., J. Biol. Chem. 274:2038-2044, 1999, which is incorporated herein by reference). The requirement for cholesterol and sphingolipids in target membranes for Semliki Forest virus fusion also has been established (Nieva et al., EMBO J. 13:2797-2804, 1994; Phalen and Kielian, J. Cell Biol. 112:615-623, 1991, each of which is incorporated herein by reference). The interactions of lipid rafts with accessory HIV-1 molecules such as Vif and Nef can have important roles in virus budding, since interactions of myristylated HIV and simian immunodeficiency virus Nef with Lck, which is present in lipid rafts, and its incorporation into virions have been established (see, for example, Collette et al., J. Biol. Chem. 271:6333-6341, 1996; Flaherty et al., AIDS Res. Hum. Retrovir. 14:163-170, 1998).

The incorporation of Thy-1, CD59, and other GPI-linked proteins into the viral envelope can have a number of consequences for virus infection and pathogenicity. For example, Thy-1, CD59, and CD55 have cell-signaling capabilities, and the transfer of these highly concentrated proteins into the host cell by HIV-1 particles can be involved in triggering an activation signal leading to interleukin-2 production and T cell proliferation. GPI-linked proteins are physically associated with the .alpha.-subunit of G proteins, which are important in signal transduction, while other signaling molecules, such as Src family kinases, are associated with lipid rafts (see, for example, Rodgers et al., Mol. Cell. Biol. 14:5384-5391, 1994). Delivery of these signal transduction molecules to the host cells by the virus can have important effects on virus infectivity, depending, for example, on the cell type and its state of activation. Among other effects, GPI-linked molecules acting through G proteins can activate integrins such as LFA-1, which can contribute greatly to HIV-1 infectivity and syncytium formation (see Gomez and Hildreth, J. Virol. 69:4628-4632, 1995).

A recent model suggests that CD45 is driven out of cap sites that serve as zones for cellular adhesion and activation between a T cell and an antigen-presenting cell (Shaw and Dustin, Immunity 6:361-369, 1997). In this model, short, low-affinity molecules such as the T cell receptor are clustered into the cap site, enhancing the two-dimensional affinity of these molecules for their ligands. This same mechanism results in exclusion of CD45 and capping of GPI-linked proteins and lipid rafts into the areas of cell-to-cell contact. Viral protein targeting through association with lipid rafts into cap sites may facilitate virus particle formation at that site on the surface by directing myristylated matrix proteins and accessory molecules.

The exclusion of CD45 from virions may be an important aspect of HIV assembly. Since the cytoplasmic tail of CD45 is so large (more than 700 amino acids), incorporation of CD45 can hinder critical interactions between gp41 and matrix proteins or other molecules. Furthermore, the long, highly negatively charged extracellular domain of CD45, determined to be as long as 41 nm, can sterically hinder viral binding to target cells if it were to be incorporated, considering that a virus particle is only about 100 nm in diameter.

The results disclosed in Example 1 indicate that HIV-1 buds through lipid rafts. During the course of infection, the cell becomes activated and polarization occurs, capping normally dispersed lipid rafts along with GPI-linked proteins and associated intracellular signaling molecules, and membrane areas containing CD45 can be cleared out of the cap site. The newly translated viral Gag precursor protein associated with lipid rafts then can be directed to the capped pole, where assembly and budding occurs. Palmitylated gp41 (gp160) is also directed into lipid rafts, and the interaction of its cytoplasmic tail with MA in lipid rafts can prevent its internalization, allowing for the incorporation of gp 160 into virions only at the site of budding (see Egan et al., J. Virol. 70:6547-6556, 1996; Yu et al., J. Virol. 66:4966-4971, 1992). Individual targeting of Gag and Env to the same site at the membrane can be an important means for delivering these proteins to the site of budding, since Gag and Env are processed and transported in different pathways within the cell. The host membrane then can become the new viral coat, resulting in the incorporation of cholesterol, sphingolipids, Thy-1, and CD59 and in the exclusion of CD45. HIV-1 also acquires functional adhesion molecules from host cells (Orentas and Hildreth, supra, 1993). These host-acquired proteins can significantly affect the biology of HIV-1 (see, for example, Fortin et al., J. Virol. 71:3588-3596, 1997).

As described above, budding of HIV-1 particles occurs at lipid rafts, which are characterized by a distinct lipid composition that includes high concentrations of cholesterol, sphingolipids, and glycolipids. Since cholesterol plays a key role in the entry of some other viruses, the role in HIV-1 entry of cholesterol and lipid rafts in the plasma membrane of susceptible cells was investigated (Example 2). A .beta.CD derivative, 2-hydroxypropyl-.beta.-cyclodextrin (2-OH-.beta.CD), was used to deplete cellular cholesterol and disperse lipid rafts. As disclosed herein, removal of cellular cholesterol rendered primary cells and cell lines highly resistant to HIV-1 -mediated syncytium formation and to infection by both CXCR4- and CCR5-specific viruses. 2-OH-.beta.CD treatment of the virus or cells partially reduced HIV-1 binding, while rendering chemokine receptors highly sensitive to antibody-mediated internalization, but had no effect on CD4 expression. These effects were readily reversed by incubating cholesterol-depleted cells with low concentrations of cholesterol-loaded 2-OH-.beta.CD to restore cholesterol levels. Cholesterol depletion also made cells resistant to SDF-1-induced binding to ICAM-1 through LFA-1. This may have contributed to the reduction in HIV-1 binding to cells after treatment with the .beta.CD, since LFA-1 contributes significantly to cell binding by HIV-1 which, like SDF-1.alpha., can trigger CXCR4 function through gp120. These results indicate that cholesterol is involved in the HIV-1 co-receptor function of chemokine receptors and is required for infection of cells by HIV-1 (see Example 2).

As discussed above, cholesterol, sphingolipids, and GPI-anchored proteins are enriched in lipid rafts (see Simons and Ikonen, Nature 387:569-572, 1997). The high concentration of cholesterol and sphingolipids in lipid rafts results in a tightly packed, ordered lipid domain that is resistant to non-ionic detergents at low temperature. The structural protein caveolin causes formation of flask-like invaginations (caveolae) in the cell membrane with a lipid composition very similar to that of lipid rafts (Schnitzer et al., Science 269:1435-1439, 1995). Signaling molecules, including Lck, LAT, NOS, and G protein .alpha. subunit, are localized to rafts on the intracellular side of the membrane, and are targeted by lipid modifications such as palmitylation, myristylation, or both. In comparison, many other transmembrane proteins do not show a preference for lipid rafts; for example, CD45 and E cadherin are excluded from these areas. Certain lipid modified transmembrane proteins such as the HA molecule of influenza virus localize to lipid rafts.

Chemokine receptors (CRs), which serve as HIV co-receptors, are G-coupled proteins with seven membrane spanning domains, and belong to the large family of serpentine receptors. The large number of membrane interacting domains indicates that CRs can be more profoundly affected by the lipids in the surrounding milieu than can a single pass transmembrane protein. For example, membrane cholesterol is essential in the binding of the neuropeptide galanin to its G-coupled seven membrane spanning receptor, GalR2. Precedence for cholesterol effects on transmembrane protein function has been established by demonstrating that cholesterol is required for ligand binding by two serpentine receptors, the oxytocin receptor and the brain cholecystokinin receptor (Gimpl et al., Biochemistry 36:10959-10974, 1997), and the role of cholesterol in receptor function has been attributed to association of the oxytocin receptor with lipid rafts (Gimpl and Fahrenholz, Eur. J. Biochem. 267:2483-2497, 2000). Similarly, as discussed above, the Semliki Forest virus (SFV) spike protein requires cholesterol and sphingolipids on target membranes for infection. Interestingly, the presence of chemokine receptor 5 (CCR5) in lipid rafts on MCF7 cells correlates with its polarized distribution in chemotactic cells, but the functional correlation between CCR5 and lipid rafts has not been well studied. A role for lipid rafts in CXCR4 signaling has not been established.

As disclosed herein, HIV-1 buds selectively from lipid rafts of infected T cells (Example 1). In addition, to SFV, measles viruses, influenza viruses, and polioviruses assemble by raft association and, in the case of influenza virus, to bud from rafts (see, for example, Marquardt et al., J. Cell Biol. 123:57-65, 1993; Manie et al., J. Virol. 74:305-311, 2000; Zhang et al., J. Virol. 74:4634-4644, 2000, each of which is incorporated herein by reference). The involvement of lipid rafts in HIV-1 biology beyond its role in virus budding has been further examined. As further disclosed herein, partial depletion of cholesterol from cell membranes using a .beta.CD inhibited HIV-1-induced syncytium formation in cell lines and primary T cells (Example 2). .beta.CD treatment of cells also increased CR internalization induced by monoclonal antibody (MAb) binding. Primary cells and cell lines were rendered resistant to infection CXCR4-specific and CCR5-specific HIV-1 strains by treatment with 2-OH-.beta.CD (Example 2). The effects observed were not due to loss of cell viability after treatment with the .beta.CD, and demonstrate that intact lipid rafts and cholesterol are required for HIV-1 infection and syncytium formation.

Since cholesterol is highly concentrated in lipid rafts and has been implicated in the entry of other viruses, the effect of lipid raft dispersion by cholesterol depletion on HIV-1 infection and syncytium formation was examined. As disclosed herein, cholesterol is required for both HIV-1 induced cell-cell fusion as well as infection by free virus particles, similar to that reported for SFV, and contact of HIV-1 with .beta.CD rendered the virus non-infectious. In the case of SFV, it appears that the cholesterol dependence can be attributed to the envelope spike protein. Another alphavirus, Sindbis virus, also requires cholesterol in target membranes for infection (Lu et al., J. Virol. 73:4272-4278, 1999). In vitro assays determined that cholesterol and sphingolipids are required in liposomes for fusion with Sindbis virus at low pH, even in the absence of receptor (Smit et al., J. Virol. 73:8476-8484, 1999). Those studies established a clear requirement for cholesterol in membrane fusion for the alpha viruses, and the present results indicate a similar role for cholesterol in HIV-1 fusion. The importance of cholesterol for HIV-induced membrane fusion is also supported by studies showing that cholesterol in large unilamellar vesicles enhanced the membrane fusion activity of an HIV-1 gp41-derived peptide (Pereira et al., AIDS Res. Hum. Retrovir. 13:1203-1211, 1997).

Glycolipids are important components of lipid rafts and the role of host glycolipids in HIV infection is being investigated. Inhibition of sphingolipid synthesis by inhibitors such as PPMP (1-phenyl-2-hexadecanoylamino-3-morpholino-1-propanol) reduces HIV infection of CD4+ human cells by 50% (Puri et al., Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 242:219-225, 1998). Moreover, CD4+ non-human cells were made susceptible to gp120-gp41 mediated cell fusion by the addition of human erythrocyte glycolipids (Puri et al., supra, 1998). CD4-induced binding of gp120 to glycosphingolipids Gb3 and GM3 from reconstituted lipid raft microdomains also has been demonstrated (Hammache et al., J. Virol. 73:5244-5248, 1999). Those results suggest that glycolipids, which are enriched in lipid rafts, can also serve as cofactors in determining viral tropism. Glycolipid-enriched membrane domains (lipid rafts) may serve as platforms for organizing CD4, CRs, and gp120/41 into fusion complexes (Hug et al., J. Virol. 74:6377-6385, 2000).

The results disclosed herein support a model for preferential HIV-1 interactions with lipid rafts as sites for virus entry (Example 2). SV40 also enters cells at lipid rafts (caveolae) even though its receptor appears to be MHC class I. The virus may bind to other regions of the cell membrane, but translocate to caveolae for entry. In addition, several bacterial toxins target lipid rafts as well. For example, the bacterial toxins aerolysin and Clostridium septicum alpha toxin bind to GPI-anchored proteins, which are highly enriched in lipid rafts, and the Vibrio cholerae toxin binds GM1. Cholera toxin oligomerization and pore formation in liposomes is promoted by cholesterol and sphingolipids (Zitzer et al., J. Biol. Chem. 274:1375-1380, 1999), and host derived GPI-anchored proteins acquired by HIV-1 budding from lipid rafts renders the virus susceptible to neutralization by aerolysin (Nguyen et al., Mol. Microbiol. 33:659-666, 1999).

The reduction of virus binding to cells treated with .beta.CD likely involves more than .beta.CD effects on CRs, since adhesion molecules also are involved in virus binding to cells (Liao et al., AIDS Res. Hum. Retrovir. 16:355-366, 2000, which is incorporated herein by reference). The affinities of adhesion molecules, including integrins LFA-1 and .alpha.V.beta.3, for their ligands are diminished by treatment of cells with .beta.CD. Conversely, the addition of cholesterol increases binding of .alpha.5.beta.1 integrin to fibronectin, as well as increasing its localization to focal adhesions and interactions with the cytoskeleton. As disclosed herein, cholesterol depletion rendered CXCR4 sensitive to MAb-induced internalization not seen on control cells (Example 2). This result indicates that cholesterol is involved in maintaining stable expression of CXCR4. Furthermore, cells treated with .beta.CD did not respond to SDF-1 in LFA-1-mediated cell adhesion assays. This result demonstrates that CXCR4, which normally regulates LFA-1 function, did not do so after cholesterol depletion. Thus disruption of integrin function on .beta.CD-treated cells can significantly diminish virus binding given the demonstrated role of these molecules in HIV binding to cells.

Multiple extracellular loop domains of CXCR4 and CCR5 are believed to be involved in CR-gp120 binding and the subsequent conformational changes that lead to HIV-1 fusion. Mouse CCR5 extracellular loop (ECL) loop swapping with human CCR5 revealed that all three loops are involved in functional interaction with the HIV-1 envelope (Bieniasz et al., EMBO J. 16:2599-2609, 1997). Env interactions with multiple ECLs of the co-receptor suggests that binding occurs in a groove or pocket at the level of the plasma membrane. Accordingly, a small molecule blocked gp120 interaction with CCR5 in a pocket formed between transmembrane helices 1, 2, 3, and 7. For CXCR4, antagonist peptide T22 blocked HIV-1 infection by interacting with the N-terminus and at least ECL1 and ECL. Since CRs can project no further than a few nm above the plane of the membrane, gp120-CR interactions may bring their respective membranes into close opposition to each other. Close membrane contact is required for lipid intermixing between the two membranes after the triggering of conformational changes in gp41. The requirement for conformational integrity of CR TM domains is evidenced by the finding that structural analogs of TM domains of CXCR4 and CCR5 inhibit signaling and HIV infection. The insertion of these peptides is believed to disrupt the interactions of the transmembrane helices in the CR, knocking out both its ability to transmit signals and support HIV fusion. Thus changes in CR conformation in either their TM domains or ECLs can profoundly affect their ability to serve as HIV-1 co-receptors. The present results indicate that cholesterol is involved in maintaining functional conformations of both CCR5 and CXCR4 (Example 2), a suggestion that is supported by results using the serpentine receptors, the oxytocin and cholecystokinin receptors (Gimpl et al., supra, 1997), where the receptor function was strictly dependent on cholesterol, and from ligand binding studies suggesting that depletion of cholesterol from the cell membrane alters the conformation of these receptors.

Clustering of CXCR4 by cytoskeletal rearrangements can be important in HIV-1 cell entry and promoting chemotaxis of CD4 and CD8 cells (Hildreth and Orentas, Science 244:1075-1078, 1989, which is incorporated herein by reference; see, also, Yang et al., J. Biol. Chem. 274:11328-11333, 1999). Lipid raft aggregation induced by a chemotactic stimulation produces similar cellular rearrangements (Manes et al., EMBO J. 18:6211-6220, 1999). That redistribution of proteins, including CCR5 and the T cell receptor, into lipid rafts appears is a critical trigger for cell function is supported by the finding that the removal of cholesterol inhibits chemotaxis and cell polarization mediated through CCR5 (Nieto et al., J. Exp. Med. 186:153-158, 1997; Lanzavecchia et al., supra, 1999). Inhibition of HIV infection by cholesterol depletion may reflect a similar requirement for these processes in HIV-1 infection.

Enhanced MAb-induced internalization of CR occurred after .beta.CD depletion of cellular cholesterol (Example 2). Interestingly, the opposite effect was observed in studies on the transferrin and epidermal growth factor receptors, where .beta.CD treatment reduced the rate of internalization through clathrin coated pits. Previous studies on CXCR2 and CXCR4 internalization induced by SDF-1.alpha. and PMA stimulation have shown that this process may be mediated by clathrin coated vesicles. Since .beta.CD depletion of cholesterol appears to inhibit coated vesicle internalization, MAb-induced CR internalization in BCD-treated cells may occur through a distinct pathway, for example, similar to the displacement of caveolin from caveolae to the Golgi apparatus that occurs after cholesterol oxidase treatment of cells, which produces membrane effects similar to cholesterol removal. Cholesterol depletion also may alter CR interactions with other proteins at the cell membrane that are necessary for stable membrane expression.

Whether cholesterol is needed for conformational stability, stable membrane expression, lipid raft mediated cell signaling, or all of the above is not yet clear. Cholesterol removal does not strictly affect lipid rafts alone, but also can affect cell signaling and other cellular functions. However, the results on HIV-1 induced syncytium formation, which only requires expression of envelope protein and viral co-receptors at appropriate levels, indicate that intact lipid rafts and cholesterol play a critical role in the early steps of virus binding and fusion (Examples 1 and 2). These results extend previous reports showing fully reversible inhibition of HIV infection by depletion cholesterol from susceptible cells with .beta.CD (Manes et al., EMBO J. 1:190-196, 2000). However, the latter studies were based primarily on transfected epithelial cell lines (293, HeLa), and did not examine the effect of .beta.CD treatment on LFA-1, CD4 or CR expression, and in contrast to the present results, did not detect any reduction in HIV binding after .beta.CD treatment, perhaps because LFA-1-negative cells were used in the binding assay.

HIV-1 prevention strategies must consider both cell-free and cell-associated virus because both HIV-1 virions and HIV-infected cells are present in the semen and cervical mucus of infected individuals. Antibodies that target HIV-1 virions can prevent vaginal transmission of cell-free virus in macaques. However, since cell-associated transmission has not been reliably demonstrated in these model systems, no strategies to prevent such transmission have been tested. A model of vaginal transmission using human peripheral blood leukocyte (HuPBL) reconstituted, severe combined immunodeficient (SCID) mice (HuPBL-SCID mice), in which cell-associated HIV-1 transmission occurs and is mediated by transepithelial migration of HIV-infected cells, is described (Khanna et al., 2001), and was used to demonstrate that topically applied .beta.CD blocks transmission of cell-associated HIV-1 (Example 3). These results also demonstrate that the HuPBL-SCID model of vaginal HIV-1 transmission is useful for investigating cell-associated transmucosal HIV-1 transmission, and for screening reagents for their potential efficacy in preventing sexual transmission of pathogens such as HIV. The HuPBL-SCID mouse model provides a means to screen large numbers of animals to determine the statistical robustness of observations made using a pathogen of interest. Thus, while the utility of the model is exemplified by addressing the role of cell-associated transmission of HIV-1, it will be recognized that the model also is useful for examining other sexually transmitted pathogens that share features of HIV-1 transmission clinically, including, for example, the transmission of viruses that use CCR5 as a co-receptor.

The results demonstrating that HIV-1 transmission to vaginal cells by treatment with .beta.CD were extended to another sexually transmitted enveloped virus, HSV-2. As disclosed herein, contact of HSV-2 virus with 2-OH-.beta.CD significantly reduced vaginal infectiousness of the virus in a mouse genital herpes model system (see Example 4; see, also, Sherwood et al., Nature Biotechnol. 14:468-471, 1996; which is incorporated herein by reference). These results demonstrate that .beta.CD is useful for reducing the risk of transmission of a variety of sexually transmitted pathogens, including sexually transmitted enveloped viruses.

The migration of HIV-infected cells and the movement of assembled virus particles out of infected donor cells are critical to HIV-1 transmission. As disclosed herein, HIV-1 budding occurred selectively through lipid rafts on the cell surface (Examples 1 and 2). In addition, the ability of lipid rafts to act as adhesion platforms facilitates cell-cell interactions and migration, which may be important for cell-to-cell transfer of virus and for entry of infected cells through genital tract epithelia, respectively (Krauss and Altevogt, J. Biol. Chem. 274:36921-36927, 1999; Manes et al., supra, 1999). .beta.CDs, which are water soluble compounds that disrupt lipid rafts by removing cholesterol from cellular membranes , interrupt cellular migration (Okada et al., J. Pharm Exp. Ther. 273:948-954, 1995) and inhibit syncytium formation of HIV-1 infected cells (see Example 2).

The HuPBL-SCID mouse model was used to examine the ability of the .beta.CD derivative, 2-OH-.beta.CD, to interrupt cell-associated transmission of HIV-1. As disclosed herein, intravaginal administration of a .beta.CD prior to challenge by HIV-1 infected cells efficiently blocked virus transmission and induced minimal, if any, damage to the vaginal mucosa (Example 3). In addition, a mouse genital herpes model system was used to demonstrate that .beta.CD treatment can reduce the risk of transmission of cell-free HSV-2 (Example 4). These results demonstrate that animal models for vaginal transmission of sexually transmitted diseases can be used to screen .beta.CD derivatives in a cost-effective way, thus providing a means to identify .beta.CDs that can reduce the risk of transmission of sexually transmitted pathogens and that do not cause undue toxicity to normal healthy tissue.

Several mechanisms have been proposed by which HIV-1 is able to traverse the epithelium of the genitourinary tract to establish productive infection in lymph nodes. For example, HIV-1 can be transmitted from infected lymphocytes to epithelial cells, or through the epithelium, which serves as a conduit through which virus is transcytosed, presumably to cells within the lamina propria that are susceptible to productive infection. Intravaginal inoculation of rhesus macaques with SIV demonstrated rapid association of the virus with dendritic cells adjacent to or between the epithelial cells lining the genitourinary tract (Miller and Hu, J. Infect. Dis. 179(Suppl. 3):S413-417, 1999), or to quiescent T cells similarly placed in the reproductive tract (Zhang et al., Science 286:1353-1357, 1999). All of these mechanisms of transmission involve exposure of free virus to the extracellular environment, providing an opportunity, albeit a brief one, for virus specific intervention strategies to be effective at the mucosal surface. Of additional concern, however, is the possibility that lymphocytes or macrophages from the infected donor could migrate directly through the epithelium of the genitourinary tract to infect lymphocytes in lymph nodes draining the genitourinary tract. As such, anti-HIV antibodies or other virion-specific strategies, while important and perhaps necessary for a protective effect, may not be sufficient to prevent transmission of the virus.

Migrating cells carrying HIV have been referred to "Trojan horse" leukocytes because of their ability to hide the virus from virus-specific defenses that may be present within the genitourinary tract (Anderson and Yuni, New Engl. J. Med. 309:984-985, 1983). While considerable effort has been directed to identifying virus-specific intervention strategies effective against sexual transmission of human and simian immunodeficiency viruses, there has been little effort to identify strategies for interrupting migration of infected cells to regional lymph nodes. Use of a mouse model of vaginal transmission demonstrated vaginal transmission of HIV-1 using infected-cell inocula (Example 3). The HuPBL-SCID model is unique in that the processes of cell-associated HIV-1 transmission can be examined in the absence of the possibility of that cell-free virus is mediating transmission. In fact, the amount of infectious virus produced by the number of infected cells in the inocula used in the present study would be predicted to be dramatically less than 1x10⁶ TCID₅₀ of free virus that failed to infect (Burkhard et al., AIDS Res. Hum. Retrovir. 13:347-355, 1997).

In the HuPBL-SCID mouse system, HIV-1 -infected PBMC can migrate through cervix-like epithelium to regional lymph nodes (Example 3). As such, the mice can be used to evaluate strategies for effectively blocking cell-associated HIV-1 transmission. To date, cell-associated SIV has not been successfully transmitted by the vaginal route in a macaque model, although both cell-free and cell-associated HIV-1 have been transmitted by viral inoculations at the cervical os of chimpanzees. Similarly, both cell-free and cell-associated feline immunodeficiency virus have been transmitted in cat models of vaginal infection.

In the HuPBL-SCID mice, only CCR5-utilizing HIV-1 can be transmitted and establish infection in the HuPBMC that were transplanted intraperitoneally into the mice. It is unclear whether this preferential transmission reflects preferential movement of CCR5-utilizing virus-infected cells across the mucosal barrier, or an enhanced ability of these viruses to continue productive infection in the unactivated HuPBMC residing in the peritoneal cavity seven days after human cell transplantation. Nevertheless, this finding parallels the observation that viruses that can use CCR5 as a co-receptor for entry are preferentially transmitted in the clinical setting.

Unlike other model systems of vaginal transmission, the HuPBL-SCID mouse model of transmission is dependent upon the movement of virus-infected cells to sites at which other human cells exist, in this case the peritoneal cavity of the infected mice. Human cells transplanted into the peritoneum do not appear to migrate to the vaginal mucosa or sub-mucosa. As such, the inability of free virus to be transmitted in this system may simply reflect a poor migratory ability of free virus and the absence of human target cells within and beneath the vaginal mucosa. Thus, the results disclosed herein do not indicate that free virus is not transmitted in the clinical setting but, instead, demonstrate that infected-cell migration through cervical epithelium must be considered in any intervention strategy.

The migration of mononuclear cells through murine vaginal epithelium has been documented (see, for example, Ibata et al., Biol. Reprod. 56:537-543, 1997; Zacharapoulos et al., Curr. Biol. 7:534-537, 1997). The results disclosed herein reinforce the notion that the single layer of columnar epithelial cells present on the surface of the cervix is more susceptible to transmigration of HIV-infected PBMC and, conversely, that the stratified squamous epithelium lining the normal vagina is less vulnerable to transepithelial transmission, presumably by reducing the efficacy of transepithelial migration. Progesterone treatment of the mice effectively converted the vaginal stratified squamous epithelium into a cervix-like columnar epithelium, thus greatly increasing the surface area within the vagina that is covered with columnar epithelium.

The HuPBL-SCID model of vaginal transmission has allowed confirmation that a .beta.CD derivative is highly effective at interrupting vaginal transmission of cell-associated HIV-1. Application of the .beta.CD to the vaginal mucosa prior to inoculation with HIV-1 infected cells dramatically reduced transmission of cell-associated virus (Example 3). .beta.CDs are cyclic, water-soluble carbohydrates that are comprised of seven glucose units and have been used clinically as a food additive (Toyoda et al., Food Chem. Toxicol. 35:331-336, 1997) and as a molecular complexing agent that can increase the solubility and stability of some poorly soluble drugs (Sharma et al., J. Pharm. Sci. 84:1223-1230, 1995). As disclosed herein, .beta.CD applied to the vaginal mucosa was substantially less toxic than a sub-clinical concentration of the widely used spermicide nonoxynol-9 (see Example 3).

Migration through the epithelium likely involves, as an initial step, interaction between lymphocytes and/or macrophages and epithelial cells. Clustering of lipid rafts on cell membranes results in enhancement of cell-cell interactions and migration, and disruption of the rafts with .beta.CD diminishes cell binding and migration. Moreover, the production of HIV-1 virions from such cholesterol-depleted cells is dramatically decreased and these virions are significantly less infectious. The results disclosed herein demonstrate that the HuPBL-SCID mice of vaginal transmission of cell-associated virus provides a simple and inexpensive system to identify agents that can be used in vaginal products for preventing sexual transmission of HIV-1 (Example 3).

As disclosed herein, 2-OH-.beta.CD significantly blocked vaginal transmission of cell-associated HIV-1 and of cell-free transmission of HSV-2 (Examples 3 and 4). Since this agent is currently used for human administration, it will be recognized that 2-OH-.beta.CD can be used alone, or in combination with other agents such as a contraceptive or antibiotic, to reduce the risk of transmission of sexually transmitted diseases. Accordingly, the present invention also provides methods for reducing the risk of transmission of a sexually transmitted pathogen to or from a subject. As such, a method of the invention can be performed with respect to the infected individual, thus reducing the risk that the subject will transmit the disease to an uninfected subject, or can be performed with respect to an uninfected individual, thus protecting the subject from an infected individual, who may or may not know he or she is infected. Where the method is used to prevent transmission from an infected individual to an uninfected individual, the pathogen or cells susceptible to infection by the pathogen can be contacted with the .beta.CD in the infected subject, in the uninfected subject, or in both. The subject can be any subject susceptible to a sexually transmitted disease, and generally is a vertebrate subject, particularly a mammal, and preferably a human.

A method of the invention can be performed, for example, by contacting the sexually transmitted pathogen or cells susceptible to infection by the pathogen in an uninfected subject with a pharmaceutical composition comprising a .beta.CD, thereby reducing the risk of the subject becoming infected with the sexually transmitted the pathogen. It should be recognized that a method of the invention can reduce the risk of transmission of various sexually transmitted diseases. As such, even where a subject already is infected with one or more sexually transmitted pathogens, a method of the invention can reduce the risk of infection by other sexually transmitted pathogens. A method also can be performed, for example, by contacting the pathogen or the cells susceptible to infection by the pathogen in a subject having a sexually transmitted disease with a pharmaceutical composition comprising a .beta.CD, thereby reducing the risk of transmission of the sexually transmitted disease by the subject to another individual.

The present invention also provides compositions useful for reducing the risk of transmission of sexually transmitted disease. A composition of the invention contains a .beta.CD, which can be in a form suitable for topical administration to a subject, particularly intravaginal or intrarectal use, including a suppository, a bioadhesive polymer, or a vaginal disk, which can provide timed release of the .beta.CD (see, for example, U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,958,461 and 5,667,492, each of which is incorporated herein by reference; see, also, Sherwood et al., supra, 1996); or can be formulated in combination with a solid substrate to produce a condom, diaphragm, sponge, tampon, a glove or the like (see, for example, U.S. Pat. Nos. 6,182,661 and 6,175,962, each of which is incorporated herein by reference), which can be composed, for example, of an organic polymer such as polyvinyl chloride, latex, polyurethane, polyacrylate, polyester, polyethylene terephthalate, poly(ethylene-co-vinyl acetate); polymethacrylate, silicone rubber, a silicon elastomer, polystyrene, polycarbonate, a polysulfone, or the like (see, for example, U.S. Pat. No. 6,183,764, which is incorporated herein by reference; see, also, Sherwood et al., supra, 1996).

For topical administration, the .beta.CD can be formulated in any pharmaceutically acceptable carrier, provided that the carrier does not affect the activity of the .beta.CD in an undesirable manner. Thus, the composition can be, for example, in the form of a cream, a foam, a jelly, a lotion, an ointment, a solution, a spray, or a gel (see U.S. Pat. No. 5,958,461, which is incorporated herein by reference). In addition, the composition can contain one or more additional agents, for example, an antimicrobial agent such as an antibiotic or an antimicrobial dye such as methylene blue or gentian violet (U.S. Pat. No. 6,183,764); an antiviral agent such as a nucleoside analog (e.g., azacytidine), a zinc salt (see U.S. Pat. No. 5,980,477, which is incorporated herein by reference), or a cellulose phthalate such as cellulose acetate phthalate or a hydroxypropyl methylcellulose phthalate (see U.S. Pat. No. 5,985,313, which is incorporated herein by reference); a contraceptive (see U.S. Pat. No. 5,778,886, which is incorporated herein by reference); a lubricant, or any agent generally useful to a sexually active individual, provided the additional agent, either alone or in combination, does not affect the activity of the .beta.CD or, if it affects the activity of the .beta.CD, does so in a predictable way such that an amount of .beta.CD that is effective for reducing the risk of transmission of a sexually transmitted pathogen can be determined.

A pharmaceutically acceptable carrier useful in a composition of the invention can be aqueous or non-aqueous, for example alcoholic or oleaginous, or a mixture thereof, and can contain a surfactant, emollient, lubricant, stabilizer, dye, perfume, preservative, acid or base for adjustment of pH, a solvent, emulsifier, gelling agent, moisturizer, stabilizer, wetting agent, time release agent, humectant, or other component commonly included in a particular form of pharmaceutical composition. Pharmaceutically acceptable carriers are well known in the art and include, for example, aqueous solutions such as water or physiologically buffered saline or other solvents or vehicles such as glycols, glycerol, oils such as olive oil or injectable organic esters. A pharmaceutically acceptable carrier can contain physiologically acceptable compounds that act, for example, to stabilize or to increase the absorption of the .beta.CD, for example, carbohydrates, such as glucose, sucrose or dextrans, antioxidants, such as ascorbic acid or glutathione, chelating agents, low molecular weight proteins or other stabilizers or excipients.

The pharmaceutical composition also can comprise an admixture with an organic or inorganic carrier or excipient suitable for intravaginal or intrarectal administration, and can be compounded, for example, with the usual non-toxic, pharmaceutically acceptable carriers for tablets, pellets, capsules, suppositories, solutions, emulsions, suspensions, or other form suitable for use. The carriers, in addition to those disclosed above, can include glucose, lactose, mannose, gum acacia, gelatin, mannitol, starch paste, magnesium trisilicate, talc, corn starch, keratin, colloidal silica, potato starch, urea, medium chain length triglycerides, dextrans, and other carriers suitable for use in manufacturing preparations, in solid, semisolid, or liquid form. In addition auxiliary, stabilizing, thickening or coloring agents and perfumes can be used, for example a stabilizing dry agent such as triulose (see, for example, U.S. Pat. No. 5,314,695).

The .beta.CD also can be incorporated within an encapsulating material such as into an oil-in-water emulsion, a microemulsion, micelle, mixed micelle, liposome, microsphere or other polymer matrix (see, for example, Gregoriadis, Liposome Technology, Vol. 1 (CRC Press, Boca Raton, Fla. 1984); Fraley, et al., Trends Biochem. Sci., 6:77 (1981), each of which is incorporated herein by reference). Liposomes, for example, which consist of phospholipids or other lipids, are nontoxic, physiologically acceptable and metabolizable carriers that are relatively simple to make and administer. "Stealth" liposomes (see U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,882,679; 5,395,619; and 5,225,212, each of which is incorporated herein by reference) are an example of such encapsulating materials particularly useful for preparing a pharmaceutical composition of the invention, and other "masked" liposomes similarly can be used, such liposomes extending the time that the .beta.CD remains at the site of administration.

The composition generally is used at or about the time of sexual activity, and usually is used prior to initiating sexual contact. The manner of use will depend, in part, on the form of the composition, for example, whether the composition is in a liquid or liquid-like form such as a jelly, a douche, a cream or the like, or whether the .beta.CD is formulated with a solid substrate such as a sponge, diaphragm, tampon, pessary, condom or the like. When formulated as such a composition, the .beta.CD can be impregnated into an absorptive material such as a sponge or tampon, or coated onto the surface of a relatively impermeable solid substrate such as a condom or diaphragm, or on medical gloves, thus providing a means to contact the .beta.CD with the pathogen or cells in a subject that are susceptible to infection.

The amount a .beta.CD in a composition can be varied, depending on the type of composition, such that the amount present is sufficient to reduce the ability of the pathogen to be sexually transmitted. An effective amount of a .beta.CD can block infection of susceptible cells by a sexually transmitted pathogen such as free HIV, or cell-associated HIV present in a secretion, or by uptake of the pathogen due to binding to otherwise non-susceptible cells, which then transfer the sexually transmitted pathogen to susceptible cells. An example of such an amount is about 1 to 100 mM, generally about 5 to 30 mM, when administered in an ointment, gel, foam, spray or the like, our about 0.1 to 2 grams, generally about 0.25 to 0.75 grams, when administered as a suppository or in combination with a solid substrate. An effective amount of a .beta.CD also can be measured in a weight:weight (w:w) or weight:volume (w:v) amount, for example, about 0.1% to 3% w:w with respect to a solid substrate or about 0.1% to 3% w:v with respect to a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier. In addition, an amount of a .beta.CD sufficient to reducing the risk of transmission of a sexually transmitted disease can be determined using routine clinical methods, including Phase I, II and III clinical trials.

Claim 1 of 35 Claims

What is claimed is:

1. A method of reducing the risk of transmission of a sexually transmitted pathogen, the method comprising contacting the pathogen or cells susceptible to infection by the pathogen with an effective amount of a composition consisting essentially of a .beta.-cyclodextrin, wherein said .beta.-cyclodextrin reduces the risk of transmission of the pathogen.

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