The invention relates to capsules coated with a polyelectrolyte shell and methods for the production thereof.

DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

The invention relates to nanocapsules and microcapsules which comprise a polyelectrolyte shell, to a method for the production of these capsules, and to the use thereof.

Microcapsules are known in various embodiments and are used in particular for controlled release and targeted transport of active pharmaceutical ingredients, and for protecting sensitive active ingredients such as, for example, enzymes and proteins (see, for example, D. D. Lewis, "Biodegradable Polymers and Drug Delivery Systems", M. Chasin and R. Langer, editors (Marcel Decker, New York, 1990); J. P. McGee et al., J. Control. Release 34 (1995), 77).

Microcapsules can be produced by mechanical-physical processes such as, for example, spraying and subsequent coating. However, the microcapsules obtainable in this way have a number of disadvantages. In particular, it is not possible with the known mechanical-physical processes to produce microcapsules with a size of <10 .mu.m (diameter). on the contrary, it is possible to obtain only microcapsules with relatively large diameters, but the range of applications thereof is restricted because of their size. In addition, the known mechanical-physical processes do not result in a monodisperse capsule distribution but, on the contrary, result in a nonuniform distribution of capsules of varying size. This is also disadvantageous for many applications in which the size of the capsule is important.

Besides the mechanical-physical processes, also known for producing microcapsules are chemical processes. Thus, it is possible to produce microcapsules by interfacial polymerization or condensation or by polymer phase separation from a polymer/solvent mixture (B. Miksa et al., Colloid Polym. Sci. 273 (1995), 47; G. Crotts et al., J. Control. Release 35 (1995), 91; S. L. Regen et al., J. Am. Chem. Soc. 106 (1984), 5756). However, the microcapsules produced by known chemical processes also have a number of disadvantages. In particular, a high polydispersity, a nonuniform envelope and, frequently, a solidification of the core are to be observed. Another essential disadvantage of the known chemical processes derives from the use of organic solvents and polymerizable organic monomers, which leads to considerable restrictions on the active ingredients which can be used for encapsulation. In particular, the use, which is often made necessary thereby, of water-immiscible organic liquids as core material drastically limits the range of applications of such microcapsules, particularly in relation to proteins or enzymes.

Lipid liposomes are another system which has been used for encapsulating inorganic and organic materials (D. D. Lasic, "Liposomes: From Physics to Applications" (Elsevier, Amsterdam, 1993); S/L. Regen et al., J. Am. Chem. Soc. 106 (1984), 2446). The encapsulation of active ingredients in lipid liposomes makes it possible to produce microcapsules under relatively mild conditions, which is why liposomes are used as carrier systems for various active pharmaceutical and cosmetic ingredients. The biological, chemical and mechanical stability of such liposome capsules is, however, very low, which limits the general utilizability of such capsules. Another disadvantage is represented by the low permeability of liposome capsules, in particular for polar molecules, which prevents exchange of matter with the surrounding medium.

In another process for producing microcapsules there is initial formation of mixtures of the material to be entrapped and of a polyelectrolyte constituent which can be solidified with, for example, Ca.sup.2+ ions. This mixture is introduced in the form of very small droplets into a Ca.sup.2+ bath to form a gel structure which can then be surrounded with a polyelectrolyte capsule in further process steps. A further development of such processes is described in DE 33 06 259 A1, where the use of Ca.sup.2+ can be dispensed with. The main disadvantage of these processes is that the lower limit of size of the microcapsules which can be produced is about 50 .mu.m (diameter), and the wall thickness of the resulting microcapsules is at least 100 nm.

DE-A-40 26 978 describes a process for coating sheet-like supports, with a support being modified so that it has ions or ionizable compounds with the same charge over the entire area, and one or more layers of organic materials which contain in each layer ions of the same charge being applied from a solution of such organic materials to the modified support, where the organic material for the first layer has ions with the opposite charge to the charge of the ion-modification of the support, and in the case of several layers there is alternate application of further layers, with ions having the opposite charge to the previous one in each case, in the same manner as the first layer. The supports disclosed are inorganic or organic support materials having an even surface. There is no reference to the use of microparticles as support materials or to a disaggregation of the support materials after the coating.

One object of the invention is therefore to provide capsules with a small diameter in which it is possible to entrap materials such as, for example, macromolecules, precipitates, liquids or gases. It was further intended that the capsules have a high stability and shells which have a low wall thickness and which are permeable in particular to ions and small molecules.

The object is achieved according to the invention by capsules having a polyelectrolyte shell and a diameter of up to 10 .mu.m or more.

It has been found, surprisingly, that coating of template particles with a polyelectrolyte shell and, where appropriate, subsequent disintegration of the template particles make it possible to obtain capsules with defined inner and outer shell properties and with selectively controllable permeability properties. A polyelectrolyte shell means a shell having a content of polyelectrolytes. The polyelectrolyte shell is preferably at least 50%, in particular at least 60% and particularly preferably at least 80% composed of polyelectrolytes. The capsules according to the invention allow the entrapment also of sensitive molecules under mild conditions, for example in aqueous solutions. The capsule wall is a polyelectrolyte shell which makes exchange of matter, in respect of low molecular weight substances and ions, with the surroundings possible, but, at the same time, retains macromolecular substances. This separating function of the polyelectrolyte shell has the effect on the one hand that active ingredients entrapped in the capsule where appropriate are retained, but on the other hand that no interfering macromolecular substances can get into the capsule from outside. In this way, active ingredients are efficiently protected, even without the addition of preservative substances, from biological degradation processes. The chemical and physical properties of the polyelectrolyte shell serving as capsule wall can be controlled within wide limits by the structure and composition of the shell and the surrounding parameters. Thus, the novel capsules can serve, for example, as transport chambers, in which case the parameters of the outer layer determine transport to preset target sites, for example in the body.

The novel capsules comprise microcapsules with a diameter of from 1 .mu.m to 50 .mu.m, preferably .ltoreq.10 .mu.m, particularly preferably .ltoreq.5 .mu.m and most preferably .ltoreq.2 .mu.m, and nanocapsules with a diameter of .gtoreq.10 nm to <1000 nm.

The shell of the capsules has a plurality of polyelectrolyte layers. Polyelectrolytes mean in general polymers with groups which are capable of ionic dissociation and may be a constituent or substituent of the polymer chain. The number of these groups capable of ionic dissociation in polyelectrolytes is normally so large that the polymers are water-soluble in the dissociated form (also called polyions). In this connection, the term polyeletrolytes also means ionomers with which the concentration of ionic groups is insufficient for water solubility but which have sufficient charges to enter into self-assembly. The shell preferably comprises "true" polyelectrolytes. Depending on the nature of the groups capable of dissociation, polyelectrolytes are divided into polyacids and polybases. On dissociation of polyacids there is formation of polyanions, with elimination of protons, which can be both inorganic and organic polymers. Examples of polyacids are polyphosphoric acid, polyvinylsulfuric acid, polyvinylsulfonic acid, polyvinylphosphonic acid and polyacrylic acid. Examples of the corresponding salts, which are also referred to as polysalts, are polyphosphate, polysulfate, polysulfonate, polyphosphonate and polyacrylate.

Polybases contain groups able to take up protons, for example by reaction with acids to form salts. Examples of polybases with groups capable of dissociation located on the chains or laterally are polyethyleneimine, polyvinylamine and polyvinylpyridine. Polybases form polycations by taking up protons.

Polyelectrolytes suitable according to the invention are both biopolymers such as, for example, alginic acid, gum arabic, nucleic acids, pectins, proteins and others, and chemically modified biopolymers such as, for example, ionic or ionizable polysaccharides, for example carboxymethylcellulose, chitosan and chitosan sulfate, ligninsulfonates, and synthetic polymers such as, for example, polymethacrylic acid, polyvinylsulfonic acid, polyvinylphosphonic acid and polyethyleneimine.

It is possible to employ linear or branched polyelectrolytes. The use of branched polyelectrolytes leads to less compact polyelectrolyte multifilms with a higher degree of porosity of the walls To increase the capsule stability it is possible to crosslink polyelectrolyte molecules within or/and between the individual layers, for example by crosslinking amino groups with aldehydes. A further possibility is to employ amphiphilic polyelectrolytes, for example amphiphilic block or random copolymers with partial polyelectrolyte characteristics to reduce the permeability to small polar molecules. Such amphiphilic copolymers consist of units differing in functionality, for example acidic or basic units on the one hand, and hydrophobic units on the other hand, such as styrenes, dienes or siloxanes etc., which can be arranged as blocks or randomly distributed over the polymer. It is possible by using copolymers which change their structure as a function of the external conditions to control the permeability or other properties of the capsule walls in a defined manner. Suitable examples thereof are copolymers with a poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) content, for example poly(N-isopropylacrylamide-acrylic acid), which change their water solubility as a function of the temperature, via the hydrogen bonding equilibrium, which is associated with swelling.

The release of entrapped active ingredients can be controlled via the dissolution of the capsule walls by using polyelectrolytes which are degradable under particular conditions, for example photo-, acid-, base- or salt-labile polyelectrolytes. A further possibility for particular possible applications is to use conducting polyelectrolytes or polyelectrolytes with optically active groups as capsule components.

It is possible by a suitable choice of the polyelectrolytes to adjust the properties and composition of the polyelectrolyte shell of the novel capsules in a defined manner. In the particular case of polyelectrolyte shells built up layer-wise it is possible to vary the composition of the shells within wide limits by the choice of the substances for building up the layers. There are in principle no restrictions on the polyelectrolytes or ionomers to be used as long as the molecules used have a sufficiently high charge or/and have the ability to enter into a linkage with the underlying layer via other interactions such as, for example, hydrogen bonding and/or hydrophobic interactions.

Suitable polyelectrolytes are thus both low molecular weight polyelectrolytes or polyanions and macromolecular polyelectrolytes, for example polyelectrolytes of biological origin.

Of particular importance for the use of the capsules is the permeability of the shell wall. As already stated above, the large number of polyelectrolytes available makes it possible to produce a large number of shell compositions with different properties. In particular the electrical charge of the outer shell can be adapted to the purpose of use. In addition, the inner shell can be adapted to the active ingredients encapsulated in each case, whereby it is possible to achieve, for example, stabilization of the active ingredient. It is also possible in addition to influence the permeability of the shell wall through the choice of the polyelectrolytes in the shell and through the wall thickness and the surrounding conditions. This makes it possible to design the permeability properties selectively and to change these properties in a defined manner.

The permeability properties of the shell can be further modified by pores in at least one of the polyelectrolyte layers. Such pores may be formed by the polyelectrolytes themselves if chosen suitably. Besides the polyelectrolytes, however, the shell may also comprise other substances in order to achieve a desired permeability. Thus, in particular, the permeability for polar components can be reduced by incorporation of nanoparticles with anionic or/and cationic groups or of surface-active substances, such as, for example, surfactants or/and lipids. Incorporation of selective transport systems such as, for example, carriers or channels into the polyelectrolyte shell, in particular in lipid layers, makes it possible accurately to adapt the transverse transport properties of the shell to the particular purpose of use. The pores or channels in the shell wall can be opened or closed specifically by chemical modification or/and changing the surrounding conditions. Thus, for example, a high salt concentration in the surrounding medium leads to very high permeability of the shell wall.

A particularly preferred modification of the permeability of polyelectrolyte shells can be achieved by depositing lipid layers or/and amphiphilic polyelectrolytes on the polyelectrolyte shell after disintegration of the template particles. It is possible in this way very greatly to reduce the permeability of the polyelectrolyte shells for small and polar molecules. Examples of lipids which can be deposited on the polyelectrolyte shells are lipids which have at least one ionic or ionizable group, for example phospholipids such as, for example, dipalmitoylphosphatidic acid or zwitterionic phospholipids such as, for example, dipalmitoyl-phosphatidylcholine or else fatty acids or corresponding long-chain alkylsulfonic acids. It is possible on use of zwitterionic lipids to deposit lipid multilayers on the polyelectrolyte shell. Further polyelectrolyte layers can then be deposited on the lipid layers.

The novel capsules preferably have a shell wall thickness from 2 to 1000 nm, in particular 2 to 100 nm, for example of from 5 to 8 nm. The thickness of the shell wall depends on the number of layers of the polyelectrolyte shell. The capsules preferably contain from 2 to 40, preferably 2 to 20, for example 3 to 10, layers. However, the capsules may also contain a larger number of layers, i.e. polyelectrolyte layers and, where appropriate, other layers such as lipid layers.

The novel capsules are further distinguished by their monodispersity. Thus, it is possible to obtain a composition with a capsule distribution in which the proportion of capsules with a deviation of >50% from the average diameter is less than 20%, preferably less than 10% and, particularly preferably, less than 1%.

The capsules are very stable to chemical, biological, mechanical and thermal stresses. The capsules can, where appropriate with entrapped active ingredients, be dried, frozen or/and freeze-dried without impairing their properties. Intact capsules are obtained again after thawing or resuspension in water.

Drying or freeze-drying of the capsules results in a composition in powder form which can be resuspended in suitable solvents, in particular in aqueous solutions. The invention therefore further relates to a composition comprising dried capsules. The drying can be carried out by known methods, in particular at elevated or reduced temperature or/and reduced pressure.

The invention further relates to a method for the production of capsules coated with a polyelectrolyte shell, comprising the steps: a) preparing an aqueous dispersion of template particles of suitable size and b) producing a shell around the template particles by application of polyelectrolytes to the template particles.

Firstly an aqueous dispersion of template particles of suitable size is prepared. The size of the capsules is fixed by the size of the template particles. Then preferably a plurality of polyelectrolyte layers is applied to the template particles to form an enveloped template particle. The shape of the shell depends directly on the shape of the template particles.

For the application of the polyelectrolyte layers to the template there is preferably production of a dispersion of the template particles in an aqueous solution. Polyelectrolyte molecules from which the first layer is to be built up are then added to this dispersion. These polyelectrolyte molecules may have the same or the opposite charge as the surface of the template particles. The amount of the added polyelectrolyte molecules is chosen so that all the material is required for building up the first layer, or an excess is used. In the latter case, removal of the excess polyelectrolyte molecules not required to build up the first layer is expedient before addition of oppositely charged polyelectrolyte molecules for building up the second layer. The polyelectrolyte molecules can be removed by known methods, in particular centrifugation, filtration or/and dialysis. Removal by membrane filtration as described hereinafter is particularly preferred. Subsequently there is further alternate application of oppositely charged layers of polyelectrolyte molecules, it being possible to choose for each layer with the same charge identical or different polyelectrolyte species or mixtures of polyelectrolyte species. The number of layers can in principle be chosen as desired. Besides polyelectrolyte molecules it is also possible to deposit other substances such as nanoparticles, surface-active substances or/and lipids on the template particles.

Template particles which can be employed are both inorganic materials, for example metals, ceramics, oxides or salt crystals, and organic materials such as polymer latices or melamine-formaldehyde particles, lipid vesicles or biological template particles. Emulsion droplets are likewise suitable. The size of the template particles can be up to 50 .mu.m--especially on use of biological template materials. However, in most cases, the template particles are up to 10 .mu.m, particularly preferably from 5 nm to 5 .mu.m, in size. The shape of the template particles is not critical. Both spherical and anisotropic particles can be coated.

It is also possible to employ aggregates of subparticles as initial cores (template particles) for coating with polyelectrolytes. These aggregates can, where appropriate, be employed in the preshaped or preformed state. Such a preforming can be achieved, for example, by applying external electrical direct or/and alternating fields or magnetic fields to suspensions with subparticles. The shape of the capsules can be determined by preshaped aggregates. It is additionally possible to obtain such aggregates with a great uniformity with regard to the size distribution (monodispersity). However, non-preshaped aggregates are also just as suitable. Spherically shaped aggregates are of particular interest.

The template particles used do not necessarily have to be charged in order to make self-assembly of polyelectrolyte layers possible. On the contrary, it is possible to apply to uncharged cores a charged precursor film which is bound to the template particles by other interactions, for example hydrophobic interactions.

After application of the required number of polyelectrolyte layers, the enveloped template particles can, if desired, be disintegrated, in particular comminuted or disaggregated. This leaves behind "empty" capsules with a polyelectrolyte shell. The disaggregation of the template particles is carried out under conditions in which the shells remain intact. A disaggregation can take place, for example, thermally or chemically depending on the material chosen for the template particles. The low molecular weight core ingredients produced in the disaggregation can reach the outside through the pores in the shell. This results in capsules with polyelectrolyte shells which contain an "empty" core. Other coating substances can be applied to the empty polyelectrolyte molecules.

It is possible after disintegration of the template particles for a liquid phase to be present inside the capsule shell. It is possible in principle for the capsules to contain any liquid in their interior, for example an aqueous liquid, in particular an aqueous salt solution or water, or else organic solvents, in particular water-immiscible solvents such as alcohols or hydrocarbons having at least 4 C atoms. The capsules may also contain solids or gases in their interior.

It is preferred to employ partially crosslinked melamine-formaldehyde particles as template particles which can be disaggregated by adjusting the pH in the medium containing the enveloped particles to an acidic value, for example .ltoreq.1.5, while the shell layer itself remains intact. The partially crosslinked melamine-formaldehyde particles can also be disaggregated by chemical reactions, in particular by sulfonation in aqueous media. The sulfonating agents preferably used are alkali metal sulfates, alkali metal hydrogen sulfites and other water-soluble salts of sulfurous acid. Other examples of template particles which can be disaggregated are soluble polymer cores, for example urea-formaldehyde particles, or salt crystals.

It is additionally possible to use as template materials, for example, cells, for example eukaryotic cells such as, for example, mammalian erythrocytes or plant cells, single-celled organisms such as, for example, yeasts, bacterial cells such as, for example, E. coli cells, cell aggregates, subcellular particles such as, for example, cellular organelles, pollen, membrane preparations or cell nuclei, virus particles and aggregates of biomolecules, for example protein aggregates such as, for example, immune complexes, condensed nucleic acids, ligand-receptor complexes etc. The method according to the invention is also suitable for encapsulating living biological cells and organisms. Likewise suitable as templates are aggregates of amphiphilic materials, in particular membrane structures such as, for example, vesicles, for example liposomes or micelles, and other lipid aggregates.

The disintegration of biological template particles can take place by adding lytic reagents. Lytic reagents suitable for this purpose are those able to disaggregate biological materials such as proteins or/and lipids. The lytic reagents preferably comprise a deproteinizing agent, for example peroxo compounds such as, for example, H.sub.2O.sub.2 or/and hypochlorite compounds such as, for example, sodium or potassium hypochlorite. Surprisingly, disintegration of the template particles takes place within a short incubation time, for example 1 min to 1 h, at room temperature. The disintegration of the template particles is substantially complete because no residues of the particles are detectable even on examination of the remaining shells under the electron microscope. It is also possible on incorporation of biological polyelectrolytes into the shell for empty layers to be produced within the polyelectrolyte shell.

The fragments formed on disintegration of the template particles, for example in the case of partially crosslinked melamine-formaldehyde particles the oligomers produced on disaggregation, can escape from the interior of the capsules to the outside through pores, in particular nanopores, in the shell wall. They can then, if required, be removed from the capsules. This removal can be carried out by methods known to the skilled worker, for example by dialysis, filtration or/and centrifugation. However, removal of template particle fragments is often unnecessary. The capsule can be used even without a removal step.

It is also possible with the novel method to produce capsules with entrapped active ingredients or capsules for entrapping active ingredients. Loading of the interior with small molecules can take place by varying the permeability of the shell as a function of the external physical and chemical parameters. A state of high permeability is set up for the loading. The entrapped material is then retained by altering the external parameters or/and closing the pores, for example by condensation of the shell or chemical modification of the pores or channels.

The active ingredients may be both inorganic and organic substances. Examples of such active ingredients are catalysts, in particular enzymes, nanoparticles, active pharmaceutical ingredients, polymers, dyes such as, for example, fluorescent compounds, sensor molecules, i.e. molecules which react detectably to a change in surrounding conditions (temperature, pH), crop protection agents and aroma substances. Since the capsules may comprise aqueous solutions in their core, it is possible for even sensitive molecules to be entrapped under mild conditions.

On entrapment of catalysts, for example ceramic and/or metallic particles or enzymes, in the capsules it is possible for the catalysts either to be adsorbed on the inside of the capsule wall or to be present as free molecules in the capsule interior, so that a virtually loss-free use of the catalysts is made possible. The catalyst-containing capsules can be retained or recovered more easily than the free catalyst. Contamination of the catalysts is substantially precluded by the protecting and separating function of the capsule shell relative to the surrounding medium. In particular, the permeability properties of the capsule walls prevent catalysts entrapped inside the capsules having their activity blocked or inhibited by macromolecular substances, while entry of substrate and exit of products is possible.

The capsules may also comprise entrapped active pharmaceutical ingredients. In this case, the capsule acts in particular as transport vehicle in order to stabilize the active pharmaceutical ingredients, protect them from degradation or/and transport them to the required site of action in the body. Specific transport can be achieved by selection of the surface properties of the outer shell.

The polyelectrolyte shell of the capsules is preferably permeable for low molecular weight substances but prevents macromolecules from passing through. The shell wall thus represents a barrier to microorganisms and external digestive enzymes secreted by them. It is therefore possible for biodegradable substances to be entrapped in the novel capsules without preservatives being necessary for stabilization.

The capsules can also be used as reaction chambers for chemical reactions or as precipitation or crystallization templates, in which case it is possible to employ empty capsules or capsules comprising an active ingredient or catalyst. Because of the fact that the permeability of the capsule walls can be controlled so that, for example, they allow low molecular weight substances to pass through but substantially retain macromolecules, the high molecular weight products produced in a chemical reaction, for example polymers produced in a polymerization, can be retained in the interior in a simple way during the synthesis. The reaction product synthesized at the same time in the external medium can be removed, subsequently or even during the reaction, for example by centrifugation or/and filtration.

The supply of the reaction substrate can be controlled during the reaction by the diffusion through the capsule walls. New ways of intervening in the progress of reactions emerge from this. The external medium can be replaced, for example continuously by filtration or for example also suddenly by centrifugation, the polymerization reaction can be stopped as desired by removing the substrate or the monomer can be replaced. It is thus possible to produce defined copolymers or multipolymers in a novel way. Since the progress of the reaction can be controlled by the monomer supply through the permeation, it is possible to produce in the capsules products with novel and different molecular weight distributions, for example highly monodisperse products. Polymers synthesized inside capsules can be detected, for example, by NMR, by IR, spectroscopically by titration with fluorescent dyes and by confocal microscopy. The gain in mass and thus the kinetics of the reaction can be followed by single particle light scattering.

On use of anisotropic capsules for packaging active ingredients or as reaction chambers, for example for syntheses or precipitation processes, and, where appropriate, subsequent disaggregation of the template shells, it is possible to produce particle compositions as dispersions with predetermined shapes and forms. The invention thus also relates to anisotropic particle compositions which are obtainable by encapsulating active ingredients in a polyelectrolyte shell, for example by synthesis or precipitation and subsequent removal of the template, for example by thermal or chemical treatment. These anisotropic particles preferably have the shape of the structures used as template. Anisotropic particles can be moved, for example rotated or aligned, by applying fields. It is possible in this way to produce dispersions with switching properties.

A further possibility is to use the capsules for introducing organic liquids such as, for example, alcohols or hydrocarbons, for example hexanol, octanol, octane or decane, or for encapsulating gases. Such capsules filled with an organic, water-immiscible liquid can also be employed for chemical reactions, for example polymerization reactions. The monomer can thus be specifically concentrated in the interior of the capsules through its distribution equilibrium. It is possible where appropriate for the monomer solution to be encapsulated in the interior even before the start of the synthesis.

However, it is also possible to encapsulate active ingredients which are unable, because of their size, to penetrate through the polyelectrolyte shell. For this purpose, the active ingredient to be entrapped is coupled to or immobilized on the template particle or is encapsulated or taken up by the template particle, for example by phagocytosis or endocytosis in the case of living cells or by encapsulation of nanoparticles in soluble template materials. After disintegration of the template particles, the active ingredient is released inside the polyelectrolyte shell. It is expedient to choose the conditions for disintegration of the template particle in this case so that no unwanted decomposition of the active ingredient takes place.

Coupling of the active ingredient to the template can take place directly, but can also be brought about by a linkage mediator. The linkage mediators preferably used are molecules which can be degraded or broken down under particular conditions. Polylactic acid is particularly preferably used as linkage mediator. For this purpose, the active ingredient is immobilized on the template particle, for example a partially crosslinked melamine-formaldehyde particle, by means of the linkage mediator, in particular polylactic acid. In this way the active ingredient to be entrapped itself becomes a constituent of the layer structure in the coating of the core. After disaggregation of the template particles and, where appropriate, degradation of the linkage molecules, the active ingredient is released inside the shell. It is possible with this method to entrap any active ingredients in the shell, in particular nanoparticles and nonbiological macromolecular components and, preferably, biological macromolecules such as, for example, proteins, in particular enzymes.

A further possibility is to immobilize cationic polymers or particles in the shell for example with 4-pyrenesulfonate (4-PS). These particles are then released inside the shell by dissolving out 4-PS in salt solutions.

However, incorporation of active ingredients in the interior surrounded by the shells can also be carried out by previous introduction of the active ingredients into the template particles on use of reversible microgels as template particles. Thus, for example, the use of partially crosslinked methylolmelamine cores before the coating makes it possible to incorporate in swollen cores substances which are entrapped in the core after a reversible shrinkage.

The capsules can also be immobilized on a surface. Adjustment of the charge on the outer layer and the free functionalizability of the external shell makes immobilization of the capsules which is independent of the condition of the entrapped molecules possible. This opens up numerous possible applications, especially in the area of sensor systems and surface analysis. This may entail the polyelectrolyte-coated template particles adhering to a surface, and the template particles then being dissolved out of the previously immobilized coated cores in order to form immobilized capsules. However, it is equally possible for the dissolving of the cores to take place before deposition on the surface.

The capsules can be employed in numerous areas of application, for example sensor systems, surface analysis, as emulsion carriers, microreaction chambers such as, for example, for catalytic processes, polymerization, precipitation or crystallization processes, in pharmacy and medicine, for example for targeting active ingredients or as ultrasonic contrast agents, in food technology, cosmetics, biotechnology, information technology, the printing industry (encapsulation of dyes), photographic industry and for veterinary medicine or agriculture (active ingredients for animal health, active ingredients for agriculture or horticulture). The capsules can further be employed for building up microcomposites or nanocomposites, i.e. materials consisting of at least two different materials and having a microscopic or nanoscopic arrangement.

On use of the capsules as reaction chambers it is possible for the low molecular weight substances such as, for example, precursors and products to permeate through the shell walls, whereas the catalysts, for example, are entrapped. On use of microcapsules or nanocapsules loaded with catalysts, the capsules being packed, for example, in a column, considerably more catalyst is available for the reaction than with conventional surface-bound catalysts, because the size of the surface is limiting there. It is a particular advantage that the catalyst inside the capsule does not have to be removed again from the production by elaborate methods. In addition, the useful life of the catalysts is improved because macromolecular substances, in particular bacteria and fungi, cannot get through the shell walls. This reduces the high sterility demands placed on many processes, which opens up many industrially simple applications of biological catalysts.

Sensor molecules can also be entrapped in the capsules. These may be enzymes which, in the presence of a substrate, form products which can be detected optically or in another way, for example colored or fluorescent products, under suitable conditions. However, it is also possible to entrap electrically active sensor molecules, in particular oxidizable or reducible substances, in which case the capsules can be immobilized on electrodes. In this case, a particular advantage besides the protective function of the capsules is that the sensor molecule does not come into direct contact with the electrode.

The capsules can also be used for producing crystals or amorphous precipitates of organic or inorganic materials or for entrapping organic or inorganic crystals or amorphous precipitates. The capsules are preferably used as crystallization or precipitation chamber or templates for producing in particular monodisperse crystals or precipitates. A high degree of monodispersity can be obtained with the novel capsules because the maximum size of the entrapped particles is limited by the size of the capsules. Chemical groups on the inner shell wall can be used as crystallization nuclei. For this purpose, molecules having side chains which favor crystal growth are used in the innermost layer in the layer-wise building up of the shell of the capsules. Thus, for example, it is possible to attach polyphosphates to the inside of the shell in order to form CaCo.sub.3 in the interior. It is beneficial to use polyelectrolytes which suppress crystal growth, for example amines, as outermost layer of the polyelectrolyte shell of the capsules.

The capsules can also be used to build up microcomposites or nanocomposites. Microcomposites and nanocomposites are materials consisting of at least two different materials and having a microscopic or nanoscopic arrangement. Such composites often imitate products present in nature, such as, for example, mussel shells which, as nanocomposites, consist of ordinary lime and protein molecules. Such composites have surprisingly great strength while being of low weight.

Ordered macroscopic structures can be built up by the assembling.

Anisotropic shells produced using anisotropic template particles, for example biological template particles, allow, in conjunction with, for example, crystallization or/and precipitation, composites with anisotropic properties to be produced. Thus, for example, magnetic ellipsoids can be produced for example by packing with magnetic particles or/and by adsorption of magnetic nanoparticles to the polyelectrolyte shell. These anisotropic particles show an orientation in the magnetic field, which makes it possible to change the optical properties of a particle suspension rapidly (magneto-optical switch). An analogous process is possible with ferroelectric particles. It is possible with the aid of these particles, for example, to stimulate small paddle wheels to pump with a rotating field (micromechanics) It is also possible to heat anisotropic particles by dissipation. This can be used to produce extremely localized heat sources which can be moved with electrical or with magnetic fields. This makes it possible to produce local hyperthermia effects. A further possibility is to produce, by ordered alignment of anisotropic particles, composite materials with a hierarchic structure and interesting macroscopic physical anisotropic properties.

As previously stated, the permeability of the polyelectrolyte shell can be controlled by modifications, for example application of lipid layers. This can be utilized for pharmaceutical applications by applying lipids to the shell after the encapsulation of polar low molecular weight substances, in order in this way to reduce the permeability of the shell for the encapsulated substances. The encapsulated substance is then able to escape only slowly through the lipid layer at a rate which is constant over a long period, which is often desirable for pharmacological administrations.

It is possible by the encapsulation and subsequent disaggregation of templates to produce accurate three-dimensional impressions of template particles. Block crosslinking of the polyelectrolyte shells results in mesoporous materials with a monodisperse accurate pore distribution. These materials have a large internal surface area together with great strength, which make them excellent filter substances for industrial purposes. Mesoporous materials with predetermined pores can be produced by selection of the templates (shape and size).

It is, of course, possible by varying the materials used to produce the polyelectrolyte shells also to vary the surface chemistry within wide limits.

Finally, the polyelectrolyte shells can also be used to produce pH gradients between the interior of the shell and the volume surrounding the shell. This pH gradient can in turn be utilized for efficient loading of the shells with active ingredients.

Yet a further aspect of the invention is the application of a plurality of successive layers to a carrier by a filtration method. This method makes it possible to produce, in a simple manner and on a large scale, capsules coated with polyelectrolyte molecules. Surprisingly, even sensitive template particles such as biological cells can be coated by a filtration method.

The invention thus relates to a method for application of a plurality of layers of coating substances to template particles, comprising the steps: (a) contacting the template particle with a first coating substance in a fluid, preferably aqueous reaction medium in a reaction chamber which is limited on at least one side by a filtration membrane, under conditions with which a layer of the first coating substance is formed on the template particle, (b) draining at least part of the reaction medium with, where appropriate, excess first coating substance present therein through the filtration membrane into a filtrate chamber, there preferably being essentially complete draining of the excess first coating substance, (c) contacting the template particle with a second coating substance in a fluid reaction medium in a reaction chamber which is limited on at least one side by a filtration membrane, under conditions with which a layer of the second coating substance is formed on the template particle, (d) draining at least part of the reaction medium with, where appropriate, excess second coating substance present therein through the filtration membrane into a filtrate chamber, there preferably being essentially complete draining of the excess second coating substance, and (e) where appropriate repeating steps (a) and (b) or/and (c) and (d) a plurality of times.

The first and second coating substances preferably used are polyelectrolyte species, or mixtures of polyelectrolyte species, of opposite charge in each case. It is also possible to use nanoparticles, amphiphilic polyelectrolytes, lipids or/and surfactants as coating substances.

The template particles are preferably selected from particles having a diameter of up to 50 .mu.m, in particular up to 10 .mu.m. Particles capable of disaggregation as previously mentioned, for example partially crosslinked melamine-formaldehyde particles, biological particles or aggregates of biological or/and amphiphilic materials, in particular biological aggregates such as cells, cell aggregates, virus particles etc., are preferably used.

In order to make complete removal of excess coating substance possible after a coating step, a washing medium, for example water or an aqueous buffer solution, is introduced into the reaction chamber during or/and after step (b) or/and (d). Addition of the washing medium takes place, especially with sensitive template particles such as biological aggregates, in such a way that the volume of the medium present in the reaction chamber is controlled in accordance with a preset program, for example remains essentially constant in step (b) or/and step (d).

Steps (a) and (c) can each be carried out in the same reaction chamber but also in different reaction chambers. The filtration membranes are expediently chosen so that, on the one hand, they are able to retain particulate template materials but, on the other hand, they make rapid removal of the used reaction medium possible. Examples of suitable filter materials are polyamide, cellulose nitrate and cellulose acetate. In order to avoid aggregation or/and blockage of the filter with sensitive template particles, the method is carried out under conditions which suppress adhesion of template particles. Thus, it is possible where appropriate to use for each filtration step membranes which have the same charge as the polyelectrolyte species used in the particular step.

The filtration can be expedited by applying a positive pressure in the reaction chamber or/and a vacuum in the filtrate chamber. With sensitive template particles, in particular biological aggregates, the filtration is essentially carried out without a pressure difference (pressure difference .ltoreq..+-.0.5 bar) between reaction chamber and filtrate chamber. In addition, stirring of the reaction chamber is in many cases advantageous, at least during steps (a) or/and (c), in particular continuous stirring throughout the process.

The novel membrane filtration method can be carried out continuously, allows relatively large amounts of coated particles to be produced in a very short time, can be monitored visually and very substantially prevents aggregation of particles. The method can be carried out on an industrial scale and can, by reason of its flexibility, be adapted to different demands of the specific particles and coating systems. On use of soluble template particles it is possible for the cores to be broken down continuously subsequent to the coating.
 

Claim 1 of 27 Claims

1. A capsule with a polyelectrolyte shell, comprising an active ingredient and a plurality of polyelectrolyte layers, and a diameter of up to 10 .mu.m, wherein the shell comprises alternate layers of cationic and anionic polyelectrolytes.

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